, 

: 


BASED   ON 


COMMUNITY 


BUR.T  O  N 


SHOP  PROJECTS 

BASED  ON 

COMMUNITY 
.     PROBLEMS 


BY 


MYRON  G.  BURTON,  A.B.,  M.S. 

DIRECTOR   OF   VOCATIONAL   AND   MANUAL-TRAINING 

INSTRUCTION   IN  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  OF 

KANSAS   CITY,  MISSOURI 


BOSTON     •    NEW   YORK     •    CHICAGO     •    LONDON 
ATLANTA    •    DALLAS    •    COLUMBUS    •    SAN    FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1915,  BY  MYRON  G.  BURTON 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 
319-3 


gftt   flthtnacum   jpregg 

GINN  AND  COMPANY-  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

Title  Page 1 

Copyright  Page 2 

Contents  3,  4,  5,  6 

Preface 7,  8,  9 

Community  Problems 10, 11, 12 

Suggestions  to  Teachers  13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 

Instructions  to  Students  20,  21,  22,  23 

Introduction  to  Section  1 24 

Match  Box , 25,  26,  27,  28 

Necktie  Rack 29,  30,  31,  32 

Hand  Loom 33,  34,  35,  36 

Box  Kite 37,  38,  39,  40 

Coat  Hanger 41,  42,  43,  44 

Broom  Holder 45,  46,  47,  48 

Bench  Hook 49,  50,  51,  52 

Seed  Corn  Rack 53,  54,  55,  56 

Feed  Scoop 57,  58,  59,  60 

Bracket  Shelf 61,  62,  63,  64 

Suggestions  for  Community  Research 65,  66,  67 

Review  Questions  and  Problems 67 

Introduction  to  Section  II 68 

Bread  or  Meat  Board 69,  70,  71,  72 

Camp  Stool 73,  74,  75,  76 

Book  Rack 77,  78,  79,  80 

Drawing  Board 81,  82,  83,  84 

Windmill 85,  86,  87,  88 

Child's  Swing 89,  90,  91,  92 

Fly  Trap 93,  94,  95,  96 

Milking  Stool *      97,  98,  99, 100 

Harness  Rack 101, 102, 103, 104 

Flower  Trellis 105, 106, 107, 108 

Suggestions  for  Community  Research 109 

Review  Questions  and  Problems 110,  111 


2O65927 


PAGE 

Introduction  to  Section  III 112 

Sleeve  Board  113, 114, 115, 116 

Water  Wheel  117, 118, 119, 120 

Window  Box 121, 122, 123, 124 

Miter  Box 125, 126, 127, 128 

Picture  Frame 129, 130, 131, 132 

Dishcloth  Rack 133, 134, 135, 136 

Book  Shelves 137, 138, 139, 140 

Sled 141, 142, 143, 144 

Saw  Horse 145, 146, 147, 148 

Hatchet  and  Hammer  Handle 149, 150, 151, 152 

Suggestions  for  Community  Research .....  153 

Review  Questions  and  Problems 154, 155 

Introduction  to  Section  IV 156 

Wash  Bench 157, 158, 159, 160 

Nail  or  Screw  Tray 161, 162, 163, 164 

Candlestick 165, 166, 167, 168 

Hand  Mirror 169, 170, 171, 172 

Flower  Pot  Stand 173, 174, 175, 176 

Bird  House 177, 178, 179, 180 

Wagon  Jack 181, 182, 183, 184 

Seed  Corn  Tester 185, 186, 187, 188 

Evener  and  Singletree 189, 190, 191, 192 

Farm  Gate 193, 194, 195, 196 

Suggestions  for  Community  Research 197 

Review  Questions  and  Problems 198, 199 

Introduction  to  Section  V 200 

Shoe  Polishing  Box 201,  202,  203,  204 

Tabouret 205,  206,  207,  208 

Foot  Stool 209,  210,  211,  212 

Folding  Game  Table 213,  214,  215,  216 

Stepladder    217,  218,  219,  220 

Automobile  Creeper 221,  222,  223,  224 

Shop  Tool  Case 225,  226,  227,  228 

Work  Bench 229,  230,  231,  232 

Cow  Stanchion 233,  234,  235,  236 

Chicken  Brooder 237,  238,  239,  240 

Suggestions  for  Community  Research 241 

Review  Questions  and  Problems 242,  243 


PAGE 

Introduction  to  Section  VI 244 

Porch  Swing   245,  246,  247,  248 

Jardiniere  Stand 249,  250,  251,  252 

Tool  Chest   253,  254,  255,  256 

Piano  Bench 257,  258,  259,  260 

Magazine  Rack   261,  262,  263,  264 

Telephone  Stand  and  Stool 265,  266,  267,  268 

Medicine  or  Shaving  Cabinet 269,  270,  271,  272 

Cedar  Chest 273,  274,  275,  276 

Writing  Desk 277,  278,  279,  280 

Library  Table   281,  282,  283,  284 

Suggestions  for  Community  Research  .....  285 

Review  Questions  and  Problems 286 

Supplement 287 

Chapter  I.     Mechanical  Drawing — 

Introduction   and   Definitions 288  to  290 

Drawing  Outfit 291  to  294 

Lettering    295,     296 

Problems    297  to  307 

Chapter  II.    Tool  Processes — 

Squaring  Stock 308  to  312 

Gauging   313,     314 

Boring    314,     315 

Sandpapering 317  to  319 

Nailing   321  to  323 

Rafter  and  brace  cuts 324,     325 

Reading  and  Writing  Dimensions 325 

Lumber  Measure   325,     326 

Chapter  III.     Varieties  of  Timber — 

Introduction 327  to  330 

Hardwood  Trees 331  to  340 

Softwood  Trees 340  to  343 

Lumber  and  Methods  of  Sawing 343  to  346 

Drying  and  Shrinkage  of  Lumber 346,     347 

Chapter  IV.     Wood  Finishing  — 

Painting   348,     349 

Cabinet  Finishing 349,     350 

Staining   350,     351 

Filler 351,     352 

Wax  Finish   352,     353 

Shellac  Finish 353  to  355 

Varnish  Finish   355  to  357 

Care  of  Finishing  Materials 357 


6 

PAGE 
Chapter  V.     Principal  Joints  Used  in  Woodwork  358  to  371 

Chapter  VI.     Tools  and  Tool  Sharpening — 

Saws  372 

Rip  Saws 372,     373 

Cross-Cutting  Saws  373,     374 

Saw  Filing 374,     375 

Care  of  Saws 375 

Planes  375 

Parts  of  the  Plane 376  to  378 

Sharpening  Planes 379 

Sharpening  Chisels 381 

Sharpening  Knives 382 

Care  of  the  Sharpening  Equipment 382 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  OF  PROJECTS. 

PAGE  PAGE 

Automobile  Creeper 221     Jardiniere  Stand 249 

Bench  Hook 49     Library  Table 281 

Bird  House 177     Magazine  Rack 261 

Book  Rack 77     Match  Box 25 

Book  Shelves 137  Medicine  or  Shaving  Cabinet.269 

Box  Kite 37     Milking  Stool 97 

Bracket  Shelf 61     Miter  Box 125 

Bread  or  Meat  Board 69     Nail  or  Screw  Tray 161 

Broom  Holder 45     Necktie  Rack 29 

Camp  Stool 73     Piano  Bench 257 

Candlestick 165     Picture  Frame 129 

Cedar  Chest 273     Porch  Swing 245 

Chicken  Brooder 237     Saw  Horse 145 

Child's  Swing 89     Seed  Corn  Rack 53 

Coat  Hanger 41     Seed  Corn  Tester .185 

Cow  Stanchion 233     Shoe  Polishing  Box 201 

Dishcloth  Rack 133     Shop  Tool  Case 225 

Drawing  Board 81     Sleeve  Board  113 

Evener  and  Singletree 189     Sled  141 

Farm  Gate 193     Stepladder 217 

Feed  Scoop 57     Tabouret 205 

Flower  Pot  Stand 173  Telephone  Stand  and  Stool. .  .265 

Flower  Trellis 105     Tool  Chest .  .253 

Fly  Trap 93     Wagon  Jack 181 

Folding  Game  Table 213     Water  Wheel 117 

Foot  Stool 209     Wash  Bench 157 

Hand  Loom 33     Windmill 85 

Hand  Mirror 169     Window  Box 121 

Harness  Rack 101     Work  Bench 229 

Hatchet  and  Hammer  Handle.  149     Writing  Desk 277 


PREFACE 

MODERN  educators  have  come  to  realize  that  the  only  avenue 
of  approach  to  the  child's  mind  is  through  the  light  of  his 
experience,  therefore  recent  text-books  are  being  so 
arranged  as  to  utilize  the  things  with  which  the  child  comes  in 
contact  outside  of  school  as  well  as  in  the  classroom  in  guiding 
him  into  new  fields  of  knowledge. 

Under  the  old  school  the  plan  of  the  text-book  was  to  arrange 
the  subject-matter  in  a  logical  and  scientific  way,  giving  but  little 
consideration  to  the  immediate  interest  of  the  child,  or  to  the 
natural  steps  of  his  development.  This  so-called  logical  arrange- 
ment placed  the  paramount  consideration  on  a  skillful  organiza- 
tion of  the  great  store  of  racial  subject-matter,  and  was  no  doubt 
quite  satisfactory  to  the  learned  scholar  or  the  mature  mind  pro- 
vided with  a  broad  field  of  experience. 

A  more  vital  consideration  of  the  natural  unfolding  of  the 
child's  mind  has  created  a  great  interest  in  what  has  been  called 
the  "psychological"  arrangement  of  subject-matter.  The  psycho- 
logical order  of  presentation  means  that  the  subject-matter  is  to 
be  constantly  handled  and  shaped  in  accordance  with  the  develop- 
ing thought  of  the  child.  This  thought  of  course  cannot  be  iden- 
tical in  any  two  children,  due  to  their  unequal  ability  and  unlike 
experiences.  This  psychological  plan  of  presentation,  followed  to 
the  extreme,  may  result  in  random  thought  with  but  little  central 
idea,  thus  following  no  particular  channel,  and  consequently  fail- 
ing to  arrive  at  any  definite  goal. 

Ironclad  advocates  of  the  old  school  of  logical  thinking  (for- 
tunately but  few  of  them  are  left  at  present)  maintain  that  but 
little  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  individual  student,  but 
that  the  mathematically  correct  and  absolutely  sequential  logic  of 
the  subject  should  be  the  master  in  prescribing  the  order  of  pro- 
cedure in  all  school  tasks. 

On  the  other  hand,  over-enthusiastic  champions  of  the 
psychological  doctrine  are  too  prone  to  ignore  the  logical  side  en- 
tirely and  allow  their  efforts  to  be  wasted  in  rambling,  and  thus 
really  give  their  students  absolute  command  of  nothing  which  will 
function  in  future  adjustments. 

These  two  extremes  are  the  paths  which  lie  open  to  any 
author  when  he  undertakes  the  preparation  of  a  text-book.  While 
the  logical  arrangement  has  been  almost  slavishly  followed  in 


8 

some  of  the  old  line  subjects,  it  has  asserted  itself  only  to  a  very 
limited  extent  in  the  newer  industrial  lines.  There  have,  however, 
been  a  few  attempts  at  text-books  and  courses  of  study  which  have 
required  students  to  follow  a  prescribed  course  in  an  absolute  way, 
thus .  leaving  no  opportunity  for  the  development  of  individual 
tastes,  initiative  and  self-reliance.  By  far  the  greater  risk,  how- 
ever, has  been  in  the  opposite  extreme.  Since  there  have  been  no 
definite  standards  nor  prescribed  courses  by  which  industrial 
efforts  can  be  measured,  many  teachers  have  neglected  to  check 
up  their  work  with  sufficient  rigor.  On  account  of  the  newness 
of  handwork  as  a  public  school  undertaking,  there  are  as  yet  a 
great  many  difficulties  to  be  confronted  in  following  the  natural 
development  of  the  child  and  thus  prescribing  projects  which  will 
set  forth  the  very  best  training  for  his  particular  case.  Much  of 
the  indefinite,  inaccurate,  slipshod  sort  of  work  which  is  being 
done  under  the  name  of  Manual  Training  apologizes  for  its  exist- 
ence by  claiming  that  it  is  following  the  psychological  trend. 

Superintendents  who  have  been  accustomed  to  maintaining 
a  high  ideal  of  excellence  in  all  their  work  have  been  not  a  little 
annoyed  by  the  chaotic  unmeasurable  results  in  their  industrial 
classes,  but  they  have  been  told  by  the  experts  along  the  theoret- 
ical side  of  the  work  that  the  child  should  be  allowed  to  unfold  in 
his  own  way.  Then  when  the  class  has  been  intrusted  to  an  in- 
experienced, perhaps  meagerly  trained  teacher,  the  superintendent 
sees  that  the  fine  theory  of  the  psychological  expert  brings  about 
intangible  standards  and  indefinite  results  in  the  hands  of  the  less 
capable  teacher. 

If  handwork  is  to  be  made  a  real  school  problem,  and  is  to 
have  its  highest  educational  value,  it  certainly  must  conform  to 
the  same  rules  of  pedagogy  which  govern  the  other  subjects.  The 
mind  does  not  undergo  any  transformation  because  the  child  hap- 
pens to  be  in  the  shop  or  to  have  a  saw  or  hammer  in  his  hand. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  text,  which  is  based  upon  many 
years  of  personal  instruction  and  observation  of  all  types  of 
schools  in  several  states,  the  effort  has  been  to  find  a  sane  medium 
between  the  logical  and  psychological  methods  of  presentation. 
Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  subject  are  well  aware  that  there 
is  a  science  in  mechanics  and  a  correct  way  to  execute  the  most 
common  and  universal  tool  processes,  and  that  there  are  funda- 
mental principles' as  well  defined  as  the  principles  of  mathematics 
or  the  sciences.  These  mechanical  processes  and  principles  rep- 
resent the  best  of  the  experiences  of  ages  gone  by,  and  if  the  learn- 
er expects  to  develop  with  economy  of  time  and  effort,  he  should 


9 

profit  by  the  racial  experience  and  acquaint  himself  with  the  very 
best  ways  which  time  has  demonstrated  for  carrying  out  the  uni- 
versal processes  and  principles. 

On  the  other  hand  the  experience  of  the  child  must  be  studied 
and  respected.  His  apperceptive  powers  constitute  the  only  means 
by  which  we  can  be  hopeful  of  his  interpreting  his  surroundings. 
With  this  idea  in  mind  this  text  has  been  designed  to  deal  with 
the  logical  principles  in  a  psychological  way.  Paradoxical  as  this 
may  seem  at  first  glance,  a  careful  investigation  of  the  text  will 
reveal  the  fact  that  every  project  gives  an  opportunity  for  the  pre- 
sentation of  mechanical  principles  to  be  employed  in  the  making 
of  a  project  which  will  appeal  directly  to  the  child's  interest.  Un- 
limited opportunity  is  offered  for  the  development  of  the  child's 
original  taste  and  initiative  in  such  portions  of  the  projects  as 
will  permit  of  modification  without  violation  of  the  principles. 

In  order  to  meet  this  widely  varying  condition  of  mind,  in 
every  section  of  the  text  a  very  extensive  list  of  projects  has  been 
presented  and  kindred  ones  suggested,  thus  making  it  possible  to 
claim  the  interest  and  attention  of  students  of  either  city  or  coun- 
try environment,  and  also  care  for  the  needs  of  those  who  are  urg- 
ing the  making  of  practical  things. 

The  preparation  of  this  text  was  undertaken  only  after  many 
years  of  teaching  experience,  and  innumerable  conferences  with 
industrial  instructors  and  other  educators  in  various  parts  of  the 
country. 

As  the  text  is  submitted  to  the  verdict  of  his  fellow  teachers, 
it  is  the  sincere  hope  of  the  author  that  it  will  find  a  place  where 
it  may  offer  its  share  of  real  and  tangible  assistance  to  every  con- 
scientious influence  which  is  earnestly  endeavoring  to  give  to  our 
youth  a  form  of  education  which  will  fit  them  for  lives  of  useful 
service. 


10 


COMMUNITY  PROBLEMS 

GREAT  captains  of  industry,  professional  men  and  those  who 
are  giving  their  attention  to  various  practical  lines  have 
recently  raised  a  great  criticism  on  the  public  schools  be- 
cause, as  they  claim,  the  things  taught  in  school  fail  to  empower 
the  students  to  meet  the  demands  of  business  life.  Even  our 
strongest  advocates  of  the  cultural  doctrine  are  ready  to  admit 
that  these  criticisms  are  not  entirely  without  foundation.  Mod- 
ern educators  are  beginning  to  see  that  too  many  of  our  school 
problems  have  no  vital  connection  nor  practical  application  in 
community  life,  so  in  recent  years  there  has  been  a  great  wave  of 
enthusiasm  sweeping  over  the  country  for  a  more  utilitarian  policy 
in  our  public  schools.  Rather  than  concoct  mathematical  conun- 
drums or  enigmas  of  language,  which  serve  only  as  mental  gym- 
nastics in  the  classroom,  it  is  just  as  cultural  and  far  more  eco- 
nomic to  take  some  of  the  great  problems  of  the  community  and, 
through  typical  projects,  teach  the  students  how  to  investigate  and 
find  a  solution  to  the  things  which  they  will  soon  be  called  upon  to 
control. 

As  soon  as  a  student  leaves  school  he  ceases  to  make  problems 
for  the  sake  of  keeping  himself  busy  in  their  solution.  The  process 
is  now  reversed  and  he  is  not  only  brought  face  to  face  with  ready- 
made  problems  calling  upon  him  for  a  solution,  but  is  surrounded 
beyond  escape  by  a  class  of  community  problems  which  demand 
the  full  exercise  of  his  capabilities.  An  unsuccessful  meeting  of 
these  community  problems  and  an  incorrect  solution  may  mean  his 
loss  of  social  standing,  professional  failure,  financial  reverse,  moral 
disgrace,  or  possibly  absolute  extermination. 

The  fact  that  all  students,  regardless  of  ability  and  condition, 
will,  in  a  very  few  years,  be  compelled  to  undergo  this  adjustment, 
makes  it  unnecessary  to  make  any  argument  to  show  why  com- 
munity problems  should  constitute  a  vital  portion  of  the  school 
curriculum. 

The  industrial  work  through  its  Manual  Training,  Agricul- 
ture, Home  Economics  and  other  practical  lines,  offers  a  most  ex- 
cellent opportunity  of  employing  the  students'  natural  interest  and 
the  inherent  disposition  toward  activity  in  working  out  projects 
which  are  typical  of  the  great  community  problems.  For  illustra- 
tion :  the  great  problem  of  sanitation  is  demanding  universal  at- 
tention and  no  one  could  claim  a  liberal  education  without  under- 


11 

standing  the  theories,  and  being  able  to  follow  the  modern  rules  of 
sanitary  living.  The  theory  of  sanitation  may  be  taught  in  an  old 
line  physiology  class,  but  it  can  be  made  to  function  not  only  in 
methods  of  thinking,  but  in  the  formation  of  habits  of  action,  in 
the  class  of  Home  Economics. 

The  community  demands  that  a  boy  be  taught  proper  care 
and  respect  for  neat  and  orderly  arrangement  in  his  home  life. 
An  unlimited  amount  of  advice  on  this  subject  may  avail  but  lit- 
tle. However,  if  the  boy  is  given  the  experience  of  making  some  of 
the  practical  things,  such  as  a  coat  hanger,  a  broom  holder  or  other 
equipment  required  to  carry  out  these  theories,  he  is  practically 
sure  to  have  the  ideas  everlastingly  instilled  into  his  nature. 

A  perusal  of  statistics  showing  how  rapidly  civilization  is 
becoming  centralized  in  our  cities  makes  it  necessary  for  the  com- 
munity to  concern  itself  with  the  problem  of  showing  in  an  effect- 
ive way  how  the  boy  may  become  interested  and  profit  by  remain- 
ing on  the  farm.  No  amount  of  theory  or  poetry  regarding  "low- 
ing herds,"  "sighing  boughs"  and  "sweet-perfumed  meadows"  will 
prove  effective  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  unless  the  boys  are 
taught  how  to  approach  the  subject  of  agriculture  and  make  it 
pleasant  as  well  as  profitable.  This  sort  of  interest  can  be  in- 
culcated only  by  the  early  experience  in  doing  realities  in  agricul- 
ture and  agricultural  mechanics.  The  boy  who  makes  and  uses  a 
seed  corn  tester  will  have  a  better  comprehension  of  seed  testing 
than  a  boy  who  merely  reads  of  the  value  of  seed  selection. 

Throughout  this  text  the  prevailing  idea  is  to  present  only 
such  projects  as  may  be  made  typical  of  some  community  prob- 
lems which  are  worth  while.  To  be  sure  there  are  certain  projects 
which  in  themselves  are  designed  particularly  to  appeal  to  boyish 
tastes  (the  kite,  for  example) ,  yet  this  project  is  replete  with  possi- 
bilities for  the  study  of  the  great  modern  subject  of  air-craft,  and 
by  studying  some  of  the  references  following  the  introductory 
statement  an  unlimited  interest  can  be  aroused. 

The  introductory  statement  at  the  opening  of  each  lesson  is 
intended  to  give  some  conception  of  the  community  problem  from 
which  the  project  is  taken.  It  is  not  the  intention  to  take  up  these 
various  discussions  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  child  a  complete 
comprehension  of  the  great  value  of  the  community  problem,  but 
merely  to  introduce  the  idea  and  offer  a  few  references  for  out- 
side reading  which  the  teache>*  may  use  as  his  time  and  inclina- 
tion may  dictate. 


12 

There  is  being  much  said  these  days  about  the  idea  of  cor- 
relating the  industrial  work  with  the  particular  activities  of  local 
interest.  This  is  sometimes  misunderstood  by  the  inexperienced, 
who  think  that  in  a  community  where  a  certain  occupation  pre- 
vails this  occupation  should  be  taught  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 
There  can  be  no  greater  mistake  than  this,  if  our  grammar  grade 
students  are  to  have  a  well-rounded  education.  It  may  even  be 
said  that  the  fact  that  a  certain  occupation  prevails  may  be  argu- 
ment for  its  receiving  less  attention  in  the  school,  for  the  students 
will  no  doubt  get  an  opportunity  to  come  in  contact  with  what  it 
has  to  offer  without  much  school  assistance.  Of  course  in  purely 
vocational  work  the  opposite  view  of  this  question  might  prevail, 
but  in  these  days  of  a  constantly  shifting  population  we  must  not 
think  that  every  boy  who  lives  within  the  shadow  of  a  blacksmith 
shop  is  destined  to  become  a  blacksmith. 

The  greatest  obligation  of  the  school  is  to  give  to  each  student 
such  training  as  will  enable  him  to  find  his  proper  place  in  his 
environment,  and  throughout  this  text  it  has  been  the  design  to 
draw  a  sufficient  number  of  typical  projects  from  the  community 
interest  to  appeal  to  the  widely  varying  inclinations  and  tastes  of 
individual  students  and  at  the  same  time  to  guide  them  sufficiently 
so  that  their  time  will  not  be  wasted  in  aimless  effort. 


13 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

THE  following  suggestions  to  teachers  are  intended  to  give  a 
broad  conception  of  the  underlying  principles  upon  which 
this  text  is  founded,  and  to  offer  means  by  which  it  can  be 
made  most  effective  in  the  hands  of  the  students.    It  is  not  the  inten- 
tion to  curtail  the  possibilities,  nor  any  of  the  originality  or  initi- 
ative of  the  teacher,  but  rather  to  relieve  him  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  drudgery  and  minor  detail  which  falls  to  the  lot  of  one  who 
must  be  a  constant  source  of  information  and  advice  to  his  classes. 

In  practically  all  other  school  subjects  the  teacher  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  placing  in  the  hands  of  his  students  some  sort  'of  liter- 
ature from  which  they  may  gather  the  essential  facts  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter. In  proper  justice  to  the  industrial  instructors,  as  well 
as  to  the  students,  these  classes  should  be  provided  with  some 
means  by  which  they  may  gather  pertinent  information  and  direct 
these  activities  by  their  own  powers  of  research.  This  will  con- 
serve the  teacher's  time  and  energy,  allowing  it  to  be  devoted  to 
the  more  important  function  of  studying  the  case  of  each  indi- 
vidual student,  and  then  prescribing  work  suitable  to  serve  his 
need. 

This  book  is  arbitrarily  divided  into  six  sections  and  each  sec- 
•  tion  presents  ten  projects  in  detail  and  offers  suggestions  for  three 
or  four  times  as  many  more.  It  is  not  the  idea  that  any  one  stu- 
dent should  be  required  to  make  every  project  in  each  section, 
but  rather  to  set  forth  an  abundance  of  work  from  which  the 
teacher  may  direct  the  choice  of  the  student  after  considering  his 
personal  taste  and  individual  needs.  But  little  attempt  is  made  to 
grade  the  projects  of  each  section  and  present  them  in  the  order 
of  the  sequence  of  processes,  but  rather  to  offer  a  series  of  projects 
which  present  kindred  principles  or  which  offer  an  opportunity  of 
appealing  to  the  varying  tastes  of  the  students.  The  sections, 
however,  are  sequential  from  the  standpoint  of  difficulty.  When 
a  student  has  completed  one  project,  by  careful  consideration  of 
the  finished  product  and  the  capability  of  the  student,  the  teacher 
should  advise  him  regarding  what  project  he  is  next  to  undertake. 
In  making  this  selection  the  wishes  of  the  student  should  have 
careful  consideration  and  also  the  selection  should  be  made  in  such 
a  way  as  to  give  him  further  training  on  the  particular  processes 
which  he  did  not  do  satisfactorily  in  his  last  lesson.  For  illustra- 


14 

tion:  if  in  making  the  matchbox  the  student  has  not  shown  suffi- 
cient ability  in  the  use  of  the  coping  saw  or  in  planing  parallel 
edges,  he  might  be  given  the  whiskbroom  holder  for  his  second 
lesson  and  be  encouraged  to  undertake  a  design  which  would  re- 
employ  these  principles. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  each  section  there  are  offered  proj- 
ects of  such  a  nature  as  to  appeal  to  the  interest  of  any  boy,  wheth- 
er of  the  city  or  of  the  country.  There  are  also  projects  of  purely 
boyish  interest  from  the  standpoint  of  amusement,  as  well  as  some 
things  which  will  be  of  value  to  him  in  his  room. 

The  introduction  to  each  section  should  be  carefully  perused 
so  the  instructor  may  have  a  fairly  clear  idea  of  what  it  embodies. 
He  should  also  acquaint  himself  with  the  processes  involved  in 
each  project  before  allowing  a  student  to  begin  it.  A  student  who 
has  not  sufficiently  mastered  the  work  of  one  section  should  not 
be  allowed  to  pass  to  the  next,  but  should  be  given  further  work 
either  from  the  regular  lessons  set  forth  or  from  the  "suggestions 
employing  similar  principles"  until  he  has  proven  his  capability 
of  undertaking  the  more  advanced  section.  It  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  that  all  the  students  of  the  class  be  working  on  projects 
from  the  same  section  at  the  same  time ;  in  fact,  too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  laid  upon  the  matter  of  giving  to  each  student  the  work 
best  adapted  to  his  personal  development  regardless  of  what  the 
other  members  of  the  class  may  be  doing  at  that  time. 

On  the  opening  page  of  each  lesson  is  given  a  halftone  illus- 
tration to  enable  the  student  to  visualize  the  essential  points  of 
the  thing  which  he  is  about  to  make.  The  illustrations  will  also 
be  found  valuable  in  guiding  the  students  and  the  teacher  in  mak- 
ing selection  of  lessons  to  be  undertaken.  The  bill  of  material  is 
given  in  detail  on  the  same  page  with  the  cut,  so  that  as  the 
student  thinks  of  each  piece  on  the  bill  he  may  glance  at  the  illus- 
tration and  thus  see  its  exact  application  in  the  finished  product. 
This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  stock  must  be  furnished 
to  the  student  in  the  number  and  dimension  of  pieces  given  in  the 
bill.  It  may  sometimes  be  convenient  and  desirable  to  furnish  the 
stock  in  bulk,  from  which  the  student  is  to  cut  the  necessary  bill. 
No  definite  instructions  can  be  given  on  this  point  because  of  the 
widely  varying  conditions  in  different  schools. 

The  kind  of  wood  suggested  for  each  lesson  is  not  necessarily 
the  only  kind  which  is  suitable,  but  in  most  of  the  projects  con- 
siderable latitude  is  possible,  and  such  material  as  is  available  may 
be  used.  But  if  a  substitution  is  made  the  student  should  be  told, 


15 

so  he  may  familiarize  himself  with  whatever  kind  he  is  using.  In 
order  that  the  student  may  have  an  opportunity  of  knowing  about 
the  tree,  its  characteristics,  nature,  function,  etc.,  and  may  also 
have  certain  guiding  points  in  its  identification,  the  references  to 
the  supplement  are  given  in  each  lesson.  Students  should  be  re- 
quired to  turn  to  this  supplement  and  read  the  discussion  of  the 
particular  kind  of  wood  which  they  are  using.  This  reading  may 
be  done  outside  of  the  shop  period  or  at  any  other  time  which  the 
teacher  may  dictate.  It  should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  go  by 
unobserved. 

On  this  same  page  of  each  lesson  will  be  found  an  "intro- 
ductory statement."  The  purpose  of  the  introductory  statement 
is  to  help  the  student  to  realize  that  there  is  a  great  community 
problem  in  which  he  should  be  interested,  and  that  the  project 
which  he  is  about  to  undertake  is  a  means  toward  the  solution  of 
this  problem.  Any  student  will  approach  his  work  with  greater 
enthusiasm,  wiser  judgment  and  consequently  better  educational 
value  if  he  sees  that  it  is  a  reality,  or  that  it  is  typical  of  some  of 
the  activities  which  are  going  on  about  him.  It  is  not  the  purpose 
of  the  introductory  statement  to  do  anything  more  than  to  arouse  an 
interest  by  suggesting  that  the  community  problems  exist,  as  but 
little  space  can  be  devoted  to  a  general  discussion  of  these  prob- 
lems. However,  references  are  given  to  government  bulletins, 
text-books,  magazines  and  other  sources  of  information  to  which 
the  student  may  turn  for  broader  information  on  the  subject.  It 
is  urgently  advised  that  these  references  be  followed  as  far  as  at 
all  possible,  because  they  will  thus  unfold  a  vast  field  of  practical 
industrial  information  to  the  students.  Many  of  these  publica- 
tions can  be  had  without  expense  and  the  others  can  be  purchased 
at  a  reasonable  price;  they  should  therefore  be  secured  for  the 
library  and  made  the  nucleus  of  the  equipment  for  industrial  re- 
search. It  will  be  found  an  excellent  plan  to  assign  various  topics 
to  different  students  for  special  reports.  This  will  also  supply  ma- 
terial for  supplementary  reading  and  furnish  themes  for  compo- 
sition work. 

The  entire  design  of  the  book  is  not  merely  to  set  forth  a  few 
plans  and  drawings  for  the  construction  of  shop  projects,  but  to 
give  the  work  the  broadest  possible  application,  and  thus  develop 
the  most  points  of  contact  with  the  various  industrial  activities  of 
the  community. 

On  the  second  page  of  each  lesson  will  be  found  a  simple  work- 
ing drawing  for  the  making  of  the  project  as  shown  in  the  photo- 


16 

graph.  These  working  drawings  have  been  so  constructed  as  to 
be  free  from  unnecessary  technicalities,  and  to  leave  as  much  lati- 
tude as  possible  for  the  exercise  of  the  judgment  of  the  student. 
In  fact,  it  has  been  the  effort  to  make  the  drawings  absolute  only 
in  so  far  as  the  principles  are  concerned.  On  the  latter  portion 
of  the  page  will  be  found  "suggestions  for  original  designs."  It 
is  not  the  thought  that  these  suggestions  shall  cover  all  of  the  pos- 
sibilities which  might  enter  into  the  construction  of  the  lesson,  but 
they  are  intended  to  show  the  student  opportunities  and  to  give 
him  different  types  upon  which  he  may  base  his  judgment  for  an 
original  idea.  Many  teachers  may  choose  to  have  their  students 
make  complete  working  drawings  of  their  own.  In  this  case  it 
would  be  well  to  study  the  working  drawing  set  forth  in  the  lesson 
and  discuss  the  various  ideas  given  under  the  suggestions,  point- 
ing out  very  carefully  just  which  parts  will  permit  of  variation 
without  violation  of  principles.  After  this  sort  of  consideration 
(and  not  before)  the  students  might  be  called  upon  to  prepare 
their  own  working  drawings. 

The  entire  spirit  throughout  this  text  is  to  make  only  absolute 
principles  ironclad,  and  to  leave  the  way  open  for  every  point  which 
will  admit  of  the  introduction  of  the  personality  of  the  student. 
The  teacher  may  quite  frequently,  particularly  if  he  has  had  good 
training  and  long  experience,  have  other  methods  that  are  just  as 
good  and  possibly  even  better  for  his  particular  class  than  those 
set  forth  in  the  book,  and  in  such  instances  he  should  most  cer- 
tainly feel  at  liberty  to  weave  his  own  suggestions  into  the  product 
of  the  shop.  There  are  so  many  possibilities  in  the  various  lines 
of  mechanics  that  no  text-book  can  presume,  nor  would  it  be  de- 
sirable to  pretend,  to  set  forth  all  of  the  possible  and  proper  ways 
•  of  doing  a  piece  of  work. 

On  the  third  page  of  each  lesson  will  be  found  "working 
specifications."  The  purpose  of  these  specifications  is  to  guide  the 
student  so  he  will  undertake  his  work  systematically  and  will  fol- 
low his  efforts  consistently.  No  attempt  is  made  to  show  him  how 
to  perform  each  operation  nor  to  "feed  him  with  a  spoon"  on 
processes  where  the  exercise  of  his  own  capability  is  most  desir- 
able. However,  for  each  process  there  are  references  to  the  sup- 
plement, where  there  will  be  found,  clearly  set  forth  by  halftone 
illustrations  and  simple  discussion,  definite  methods  of  performing 
each  operation.  It  is  the  idea  that  where  a  student  is  capable  of 
doing  the  work  without  assistance  it  would  be  detrimental  to  his 
best  progress  to  offer  him  unnecessary  aid.  However,  it  is  very 


17 

essential  that  a  means  of  relief  should  be  available  if  occasion 
arises  where  a  student  is  in  need  of  such  help.  This  will  be  found 
a  great  assistance  to  the  teacher  who,  when  he  finds  a  boy  incor- 
rectly performing  any  process,  may  simply  direct  him  to  turn  to 
the  supplement  and  correct  his  error.  This  will  place  the  boy  on 
his  own  resources,  will  develop  his  power  of  research  and  instill 
habits  of  self-reliance.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  teacher's  time 
will  be  thus  saved  to  an  extent  which  will  increase  his  capacity 
many  fold.  These  references  will  apply  also  to  the  subject  of  tool- 
sharpening,  wood-finishing  and  drawing. 

There  is  such  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the  rela- 
tion of  drawing  to  shop  work  that  it  is  difficult  for  a  text-book  to 
be  so  prepared  as  to  conform  to  the  ideas  of  all  instructors.  For 
that  reason,  while  throughout  this  book  working  drawings  are 
presented,  yet  in  the  supplement  considerable  attention  is  devoted 
to  the  subject,  and  sufficient  material  is  offered  for  the  average 
teacher  to  be  able  to  direct  such  work  in  mechanical  and  shop 
drawing  as  should  accompany  the  industrial  subjects  in  the  grades 
for  which  this  text  is  intended.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  amount 
of  geometric  construction  which  may  be  offered  in  mechanical 
drawing  work;  however,  in  order  to  make  this  work  as  practical 
as  possible,  abstract  problems  have  been  reduced  to  the  minimum 
and  the  production  of  shop  drawings  has  been  emphasized.  It  is 
left  to  the  option  of  the  teacher  as  to  whether  this  drawing  work 
is  to  be  taken  up  as  a  separate  subject  and  given  a  specific  period 
per  week,  or  whether  it  should  be  given  as  a  part  of  the  shop  work 
and  each  student  be  required  to  prepare  his  own  drawings  for  each 
project  before  undertaking  it. 

For  the  staining  and  the  finishing  of  the  models  only  a  few 
suggestions  are  given,  for  it  is  felt  that  this  matter  should  be  left 
very  largely  to  the  taste  of  the  student  and  the  judgment  of  the 
teacher  who  best  understands  local  conditions.  Instead  of  giving 
specific  instructions  for  the  finished  work  on  each  lesson,  refer- 
ences are  made  to  the  supplement  for  the  kind  of  finish  which 
would  be  appropriate.  The  matter  of  color  and  number  of  coats 
and  fineness  of  polish  is  merely  suggested  and  left  for  its  final  de- 
cision to  the  instructor  in  charge. 

Under  the  heading,  "Original  Projects  Employing  Similar 
Principles,"  there  will  be  found  a  number  of  suggestions  which 
will  furnish  additional  kindred  work  which  may  be  utilized  as 
local  conditions  suggest.  There  may  be  adept  students  or  those 
who  wish  to  work  extra  hours  for  whom  these  suggestions  will  be 


18 

found  quite  beneficial.  No  attempt  is  made  to  furnish  drawings 
or  illustrations,  but  simply  a  few  guiding  suggestions  are  given 
for  the  purpose  of  directing  the  attention  of  the  student  to  the 
principles  which  should  be  observed.  For  undertakings  of  this 
character  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  students  to  work  out  their 
own  designs  and  make  their  complete  working  drawings.  These 
projects  will  offer  possibilities  for  home  work,  for  contests  on  out- 
side efforts  and  for  the  making  of  things  which  may  be  used  in 
school  exhibits  or  auction  sales,  which  are  sometimes  resorted  to 
in  assisting  to  raise  money.  Students  should  be  encouraged  to  give 
considerable  attention  to  these  original  projects,  but  care  must  be 
exercised  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  prevent  violation  of  princi- 
ples, and  the  students  should  be  led  to  see  that  their  originality 
must  cover  only  such  points  as  will  admit  of  modification  without 
destroying  the  function  of  the  article.  For  illustration,  in  mak- 
ing a  T-square,  the  shape,  length,  width  and  thickness  of  the  head, 
also  the  dimensions  of  the  blade,  are  largely  matters  of  personal 
choice,  but  that  the  edges  of  the  blade  and  of  the  head  must  be 
perfect,  straight  lines,  and  must  be  set  at  right  angles  are  absolute 
principles  which  the  originality  of  the  maker  cannot  in  any  way 
modify.  In  almost  every  project  there  are  some  such  absolute 
principles  which  are  inviolable,  and  these  (and  these  alone)  are 
the  things  upon  which  this  text  endeavors  to  be  ironclad. 

The  review  questions  and  problems  found  at  the  close  of  each 
section  are  given  as  an  aid  to  the  teacher  in  developing  the  correla- 
tion between  the  industrial  work  and  the  other  subjects,  particu- 
larly with  the  arithmetic.  These  problems  are  not  all  arithmetical, 
however;  they  deal  with  number  conception,  not  with  the  idea  of 
presenting  the  problems  under  a  classified  head,  as  they  are  often 
found  in  arithmetic,  but  so  arranged  that  they  will  test  the  judg- 
ment of  the  student  and  make  him  feel  that  he  is  dealing  with  real 
questions  rather  than  that  he  is  handling  problems  which  were 
made  only  for  the  sake  of  furnishing  him  something  to  do.  These 
problems  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  preparing  as  many  others  as  the 
time  and  needs  of  a  particular  class  may  dictate. 

The  "suggestions  for  community  research"  constitute  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  work  of  the  shop  and  the  activities  of 
the  home  and  the  community.  The  teacher  should  lay  great  em- 
phasis upon  this  work,  for  there  is  no  other  way  by  which  so  much 
community  interest  can  be  aroused  as  by  having  all  of  the  students 
constantly  on  the  alert  to  gather  information  from  the  activities 
about  them  and  carry  it  into  the  schoolroom.  Parental  support 


19 

can  be  most  heartily  enlisted  and  the  good  will  of  the  community 
acquired  by  having  the  students  enter  into  this  co-operative  plan 
of  civic  development. 

The  reference  work  indicated  in  this  text  wrill  give  the  stu- 
dents a  margin  of  technical  information  which  they  may  impart 
to  their  parents  and  neighbors  in  return  for  their  practical  ideas 
and  experience,  and  thus  every  factor  of  the  community  will  profit 
by  the  encouragement  of  this  research  work.  This  movement  is 
replete  with  possibilities  in  connection  with  reports  and  discus- 
sions in  which  both  students  and  patrons  might  participate,  in 
parent-teachers'  clubs,  farmers'  institutes  and  other  community 
gatherings.  There  is  no  way  more  sure  nor  more  economic  in 
making  a  good  citizen  of  a  boy  than  to  develop  his  interests  in 
community  problems  during  the  period  of  his  plastic  age. 


20 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  STUDENTS 

IN  undertaking  this  shop  work  you  will  find  many  things  which 
are  a  little  different  to  the  regular  recitation  work  to  which  you 
have  been  accustomed  in  the  other  subjects.     Here  you  will 
have  a  chance  to  learn  by  doing  as  well  as  by  thinking,  and  also 
to  use  some  of  the  experience  which  you  have  had  at  home  and 
elsewhere.    There  are  so  many  activities  going  on  about  you  that 
you  are  constantly  meeting  with  many  different  kinds  of  material ; 
the  purpose  of  this  work  will  be  to  help  you  to  understand  those 
things. 

Shop  work  is  not  merely  to  furnish  you  employment  for  your 
hands,  but  to  teach  you  to  think  as  well  as  work,  for  skillful  work 
comes  only  from  hands  that  are  properly  guided  by  the  mind. 
There  are  so  many  valuable  and  interesting  things  presented  in 
these  lessons  that  you  have  a  chance  to  select  such  things  which 
you  desire  to  make.  But  before  making  your  selection  you  should 
discuss  it  with  your  teacher.  After  you  have  made  a  selection  and 
commenced  a  piece  of  work,  complete  it  to  the  very  best  of  your 
ability  before  leaving  it.  Sometimes  a  student  wants  to  leave  a 
piece  of  work  before  it  is  done;  this  disposition  encourages  very 
bad  habits  and  is  sure  to  develop  a  boy  into  an  unsuccessful  busi- 
ness man  if  it  is  continued.  Always  complete  a  task  when  you  un- 
dertake it,  even  though  you  may  find  some  portions  of  it  a  little 
difficult. 

In  every  lesson  there  are  illustrations  showing  you  just  how 
the  finished  product  will  appear.  The  bill  of  material  tells  you 
exactly  what  lumber,  hardware  and  other  supplies  are  necessary 
in  making  the  article.  The  material  may  not  be  furnished  to  you 
in  exactly  the  number  of  pieces  and  sizes  given  in  the  bill,  but  with 
a  little  thought  you  will  be  able  to  cut  the  required  pieces  from 
stock  lumber.  In  cutting  from  stock  always  be  very  careful  to 
avoid  wasting  material.  Always  read  over  the  bill  and  look  at  the 
picture  and  see  if  you  can  tell  for  which  portion  of  the  article  each 
piece  is  intended. 

The  introductory  statement  on  the  first  page  should  be  very 
carefully  read,  for  this  will  give  you  an  idea  of  the  purpose  of  the 
thing  which  you  are  to  make  and  you  will  thus  see  that  it  is  valuable 
from  a  practical  standpoint.  The  references  given  at  the  bottom 
of  the  page  are  of  great  importance,  not  so  much  in  training  your 


21 

hand  as  in  teaching  you  to  think  accurately  and  to  understand 
some  of  the  great  questions  which  are  so  important  to  men  who 
are  running  the  affairs  of  the  world.  If  you  have  access  to  a  good 
library  you  will  be  well  paid  for  the  effort  of  looking  up  all  these 
references  and  studying  them  in  detail.  It  would  be  an  excellent 
plan  to  keep  a  notebook  and  write  notes  on  such  articles  as  are  of 
particular  interest.  This  information  will  be  quite  valuable  in  a 
very  few  years,  when  you  are  called  upon  to  earn  your  way  in  the 
world  and  compete  with  men  who  are  carrying  on  the  activities  of 
your  community. 

On  the  next  page  of  each  lesson  you  will  find  complete  work- 
ing drawings  showing  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  every  piece. 
You  must  not  expect  to  understand  a  drawing  perfectly  at  the  first 
glance;  it  will  require  careful  study  of  every  drawing  to  be  able 
to  make  your  work  as  it  should  be.  If  you  do  not  understand  how 
to  read  drawings,  turn  to  the  chapter  on  mechanical  and  working 
drawings  and  study  this  chapter  very  carefully,  for  it  will  enable 
you  to  understand  just  how  the  drawings  are  made.  All  shop 
drawings  are  made  on  the  same  principles.  The  purpose  of  this 
chapter  is  to  explain  those  things  to  you. 

On  the  lower  portion  of  this  drawing  space  is  given  a  number 
of  ideas  which  you  may  use  if  you  desire.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  ways  given  on  this  page  are  the  only  ways  in  which  an 
article  can  be  made,  but  these  are  some  of  the  ways  which  are  quite 
often  used.  In  many  of  the  lessons  you  may  be  able  to  pick  out 
some  original  plan  which  you  will  desire  to  use;  it  would  be  well 
for  you  to  discuss  your  plan  with  your  teacher,  or  possibly  your 
parents,  or  some  one  who  has  had  experience,  and  find  out  the  good 
and  poor  points  in  your  plan.  If  you  work  out  a  plan  of  your  own, 
it  would  be  very  desirable  for  you  to  make  a  complete  working 
drawing  before  undertaking  the  work.  Your  teacher  will  no  doubt 
advise  on  this  matter- 

The  working  specifications  on  the  next  page  are  intended  to 
assist  you  in  making  each  part.  These  specifications  do  not  at- 
tempt to  tell  you  everything  which  you  are  expected  to  do.  You 
are  left  to  think  for  yourself.  The  references  given  in  parentheses 
refer  to  the  chapters  in  the  supplement  at  the  close  of  the  book. 
If  you  are  told  to  perform  any  sort  of  tool  operation  and  do  not  un- 
derstand it,  turn  back  to  the  supplement  and  you  will  find  an  ex- 
planation, and  possibly  illustrations  showing  you  exactly  how  this 
particular  process  should  be  executed.  You  should  study  these 
explanations  very  carefully  and  perform  the  processes  according- 


22 

ly.    Do  not  fail  to  look  up  all  of  the  references  so  you  can  be  sure 
that  you  are  handling  your  tools  properly. 

The  suggestions  for  optional  projects  employing  similar  prin- 
ciples are  intended  to  awaken  your  thought  and  to  furnish  you 
something  to  do  during  outside  periods  or  home  work.  The  prin- 
ciples which  you  gather  from  these  lessons  should  be  made  valu- 
able to  you  in  your  practical  everyday  life.  If  you  will  think  very 
carefully  you  will  notice  that  each  suggestion  guides  you  in  the 
making  of  things  which  will  be  quite  useful;  they  are  of  course 
not  exactly  like  the  things  which  you  have  made  in  the  shop,  but 
they  employ  the  same  principles,  and  you  should  be  able  to  make 
them  without  any  difficulty. 

The  real  value  which  you  get  out  of  this  work  will  depend 
very  largely  upon  your  ability  to  make  useful  articles  about  your 
home.  The  making  of  any  one  project  in  itself  might  not  be  of 
any  great  importance  to  you,  but  what  you  learn  in  making  that 
thing  may  save  you  a  great  many  dollars.  Keep  this  in  mind  and 
try  to  learn  as  much  as  possible  from  whatever  you  are  making; 
you  can  do  this  only  by  giving  it  your  best  attention  and  doing  it 
the  very  best  you  know  how.  Some  -students  have  the  habit  of  go- 
ing to  the  teacher  and  asking  whether  a  piece  of  work  is  'good 
enough.'  No  piece  of  work  is  good  enough  unless  it  is  the  very 
best  that  you  can  do.  Keep  in  mind  that  if  you  expect  a  piece  of 
work  to  be  beautiful  and  perfect  when  completed  it  must  be  cor- 
rectly done  from  the  very  start.  A  little  error  in  the  beginning 
of  a  piece  of  work  is  quite  likely  to  be  evident  when  the  thing  is 
finished.  The  time  to  commence  being  careful  is  when  you  begin 
the  project. 

Another  important  thing  which  you  are  to  learn  from  this 
work  is  the  value  of  having  a  place  for  everything  and  keeping 
it  in  its  proper  place.  There  is  no  one  subject  in  school  which  will 
give  you  such  an  excellent  opportunity  to  show  that  you  have 
habits  of  orderly  arrangements.  Always  keep  your  tools  in  the 
proper  place  on  your  bench.  See  that  your  tools  are  kept  sharp 
and  clean.  When  you  are  through  with  your  bench,  remove  the 
scraps,  put  the  tools  in  the  proper  places  and  brush  the  dust  from 
your  bench.  A  business  man  would  not  want  to  employ  a  young 
man  who  has  careless  habits.  The  only  way  to  develop  habits  of 
neatness  and  care  is  to  practice  such  things  in  all  of  your  work. 

Be  sure  that  you  do  not  overlook  the  suggestions  for  com- 
munity research.  These  suggestions  will  guide  you  into  some  of 
the  most  interesting  things  in  connection  with  your  school  work. 


23 

There  will  be  a  great  many  things  found  out  in  this  research  work 
which  will  be  worth  while  to  enter  in  your  notebook.  You  may 
not  now  see  the  value  of  keeping  a  notebook,  but  you  will  appre- 
ciate it  after  a  few  years. 

The  questions  and  problems  are  intended  to  point  out  to  you 
some  things  worth  remembering.  So  even  though  some  of  these 
questions  and  problems  may  seem  a  little  difficult,  it  will  be  well 
worth  your  while  to  think  about  them  and  find  the  solution.  It  is 
not  the  things  that  are  easiest  done  that  give  us  most  strength,  so, 
even  though  some  of  the  things  may  be  difficult,  approach  them 
with  a  good  will  and  determination  and  you  will  soon  be  quite 
proud  of  the  results. 

You  should  equip  yourself,  if  possible,  with  a  bench  and  some 
tools  in  some  sort  of  shop  so  that  you  could  do  work  at  home.  It 
does  not  require  a  separate  building  nor  very  much  space;  a  cor- 
ner in  the  garage,  tool  shed,  barn  or  basement  would  answer  very 
satisfactorily.  You  could  make  your  own  bench,  following  the 
instructions  given  in  this  text,  and  it  would  not  require  very  much 
expense  to  equip  yourself  with  the  necessary  tools.  You  no  doubt 
could  find  some  of  the  tools  about  your  home ;  they  would  probably 
be  satisfactory  if  put  in  good  condition.  Remember  that  one  of 
the  principal  things  in  the  use  of  tools  is  to  have  them  sharp  and 
free  from  rust,  and  kept  where  you  can  find  them  without  loss  of 
time.  From  time  to  time  you  could  add  a  few  tools  to  your  stock, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  so  be  well  supplied  with  the  neces- 
sary tools  for  ordinary  tasks. 

Your  parents  would  no  doubt  rather  pay  you  for  making  a 
screen  window  or  repairing  a  door  or  doing  some  other  such  task, 
and  allow  you  to  have  the  money  for  tools,  than  to  have  a  mechanic 
come  and  do  it.  Possibly  you  may  never  care  to  become  a  car- 
penter or  a  woodworker  of  any  sort,  but  nevertheless  it  will  always 
be  quite  valuable  to  you  to  be  able  to  handle  tools  with  skill  and  to 
have  a  knowledge  of  good  work  when  you  see  it. 

A  knowledge  of  the  different  kinds  of  wood  and  how  they  are 
finished  will  also  be  quite  valuable  to  you.  This  information  may 
save  you  a  great  many  dollars  in  the  purchase  of  furniture  some 
time  during  your  life. 


24 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SECTION  I 

IN  this  section  will  be  found  an  introduction  to  elementary  tool 
processes  and  the  simpler  hand  tools.  The  laying  out  tools,  such 
as  the  ruler,  try-square  and  marking  gauge  are  introduced.  The 
plane,  hammer,  saw,  coping  saw,  brace  and  bit,  screwdriver,  wood 
file  and  sandpaper  are  brought  in  with  easy  applications  of  their 
use. 

The  projects  of  this  section  are  all  soft  wood  models  and  should 
thus  give  the  student  but  little  difficulty  in  executing  tool  proc- 
esses. While  not  all  of  the  projects  are  identical  in  processes  set 
forth,  yet  they  are  so  planned  and  presented  as  to  deal  with  such 
principles  as  the  student  should  master  early^  in  his  work. 

It  is  strongly  advised  that  each  student  be  required  to  make 
his  own  working  drawings  after  making  a  careful  study  of  those 
given  and  of  the  suggestions  for  optional  design. 

The  assembling  work  throughout  this  section  will  be  found 
very  simple,  consisting  of  no  mortise  and  tenon  or  other  difficult 
joints.  The  staining  and  polishing  is  largely  optional,  but  can 
be  very  satisfactorily  done  by  referring  to  the  references  in  the 
supplement,  where  detailed  instructions  are  given  for  this  work. 

The  home  research  work  following  this  section  is  not  limited 
to  the  interest  aroused  by  these  projects,  but  is  based  on  a  broad- 
er view,  which  may  be  derived  from  the  references.  As  many 
as  possible  of  these  should  be  given  careful  study  and  some  dis- 
cussion in  class. 

Before  a  student  is  ready  to  leave  this  section  he  should  be 
able  to  read  and  interpret  simple  working  drawings.  He  should 
be  able  to  make  accurate  measurements  with  the  ruler,  to  use 
the  try-square  in  scoring  and  in  testing  edges,  to  regulate  and 
adjust  his  plane  and  to  plane  a  straight  edge.  He  should  have 
but  little  difficulty  with  the  marking  gauge  and  should  have  had 
sufficient  experience  with  the  ripsaw  and  cross-cutting  saw  to  be 
able  to  use  them  without  developing  incorrect  habits.  He  should 
have  acquired  sufficient  judgment  to  be  able  to  use  a  hammer, 
boring  tools  and  screwdriver  in  simple  assembling  work. 

If  the  student  has  acquired  a  high  ideal  of  excellence  in  this 
first  section,  and  understands  that  each  process  must  be  executed 
to  the  very  best  of  his  ability  before  undertaking  another  one,  the 
particular  processes  covered  by  the  section  need  not  be  a  matter  of 
deep  concern. 


25 

MATCH  BOX 

MATERIALS. 
Basswood  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  31), 

1  pc.  lA"x4"x8i/2"  S  2  S  Back. 
3  pcs.  ^"x2i/4"x9"  S  2  S  Sides, 

front  and  bottom. 
1  pc.  sandpaper  2"x2". 
20-3,4"  No.  18  brads. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

We  all  know  that  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  a  place  for 
everything  and  then  see  that  things  are  kept  in  their  proper  places. 
A  great  deal  of  valuable  time  can  be  saved  by  being  able  to  find 
what  you  want  when  you  want  it. 

Some  things  can  be  carelessly  laid  about  without  any  great 
danger,  but  this  is  not  true  of  matches ;  if  left  in  an  improper  place 
they  may  be  the  cause  of  great  damage. 

This  match  box  will  be  very  valuable  for  home  use  in  furnish- 
ing a  handy  and  safe  place  in  which  to  keep  the  supply  of  matches. 
It  should  be  hung  on  the  wall,  not  too  close  to  the  stove  or  heat  pipes 
and  high  enough  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  small  children. 

If  we  could  know  how  many  buildings  are  destroyed  by  fire 
every  year  because  of  carelessness,  we  would  understand  why  every 
one  should  do  his  part  in  preventing  this  needless  waste. 


References : 


"How  Matches  Are  Made,"  Industries  of  Today,  by  Lane.     Ginn   Co., 

Publisher. 

"American  Inventions  and  Inventors,"  by  Mowry.     Silver-Burdett  Co. 
"The  Match" — Stories  of  Useful  Inventions,  by  Forman.     The  Century 

Pub.  Co. 

Fire  Prevention,  Crocker.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 
Protection  Against  Fire,  Bird.     Kurd  &  Houghton. 
Fire  Department  Journal,  New  York  City. 


26 


MATCH  BOX 


p- 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGN 


HoJ 


No.2 


Ho.3 


No.4 


27 

MATCH  BOX  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BACK. 

Select  the  best  side  of  the  back  piece  for  the  working  face. 
As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  (planed  or  smooth  on  two  sides), 
you  will  not  need  to  plane  the  surface.  Mark  this,  the  Working 
Face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2) . 

Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
4).  Gauge  the  exact  width  on  both  surfaces  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 6) ;  carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  lines. 

Lay  out  the  design  which  you  are  to  use  for  the  back.  If 
you  are  to  use  the  one  given  in  the  working  drawing,  be  sure  to 
make  the  measurements  carefully,  and  lay  it  out  very  accurately. 
Saw  out  with  the  coping  saw,  smooth  the  edges  with  the  wood  file 
and  sandpaper. 

THE  SIDES. 

Two  of  the  pieces  14"  by  21/4 "x9"  are  for  the  sides.  If  you  do 
not  wish  to  use  the  design  given  in  the  drawing,  draw  a  design  of 
your  own  before  attempting  to  lay  out  the  sides.  Plane  one  edge 
of  one  of  the  pieces  of  material  perfectly  straight,  and  use  this  for 
a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Make  all  measure- 
ments from  this  edge  and  lay  out  the  design  for  the  side.  Saw  out 
with  the  coping  saw  and  smooth  the  edges  as  you  did  the  back  piece. 
Make  the  second  piece  exactly  like  the  first. 

THE  BOTTOM  AND  FRONT. 

The  piece  I4"x2i/4"x9"  is  large  enough  to  make  both  the  bot- 
tom and  front  of  your  match  box.  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight 
and  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Plane  one  end  perfectly 
square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) ;  measure  and  cut  the  length  of 
the  bottom.  Gauge  the  width  of  the  bottom  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 6) .  This,  you  will  notice,  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  width  of 
the  side. 

THE  FRONT. 

Plane  one  edge  of  the  front  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  4) .  Square  one  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) ; 
measure  and  cut  the  length  of  the  front.  Be  sure  to  cut  it  perfectly 
square.  Gauge  the  width  of  the  front  piece  and  plane  to  the 
gauge  line  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6) .  Lay  out,  cut  and  smooth  the 
half-circle  in  the  front  piece. 


28 

ASSEMBLING. 

Test  the  two  sides  to  be  sure  they  are  exactly  the  same 
width.  Try  the  front  piece,  and  see  if  it  is  just  as  long  as  the  back 
piece  is  wide.  Make  sure  that  the  bottom  is  perfectly  rectangular 
and  exactly  the  same  width  as  the  sides.  The  match  box  is  to  be 
assembled  with  plain  butt  joints  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  60) 
fastened  with  brads.  The  edges,  however,  should  be  spread  with 
a  very  little  glue.  Do  not  use  too  much  or  it  will  spread  out  and  soil 
the  outside  surfaces  of  the  joints.  You  will  have  to  be  very  care- 
ful in  driving  the  brads  to  prevent  splitting  out  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 21). 

FINISHING. 

When  the  match  box  is  completely  assembled,  clean  it  all 
over.  It  may  be  necessary  in  some  places  to  take  off  a  very  thin 
shaving  with  a  sharp  plane.  With  the  sandpaper  and  wood  file 
make  sure  that  the  edges  are  perfectly  even  and  all  the  surfaces 
free  from  glue,  tool  marks  or  soiled  places.  The  match  box  should 
have  a  finish  of  some  sort,  which  you  may  choose  for  yourself.  It 
might  be  stained  a  desirable  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph 
54),  and  shellaced  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57).  If  you  wish  it  to 
be  the  natural  color  of  the  wood,  it  should  be  given  one  or  two  coats 
of  shellac. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

COMB  CASE. 

1.  A  very  pretty  comb  case  may  be  made  after  the  same 
fashion  as  this  match  box.    It  would  have  to  be  wider  so  the  box 
would  receive  a  long  comb. 

LETTER  BOX. 

2.  In  using  this  plan  for  a  letter  box,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  make  the  box  deeper  and  wider  to  provide  room  for  long  let- 
ters and  papers.    The  material  should  be  thicker. 

WRENCH  OR  GREASE  BOX. 

3.  In  the  tool  shed  or  garage  a  box  of  this  kind  will  be  found 
a  great  convenience  in  furnishing  a  place  for  the  wrenches,  oil 
can  or  grease  box. 

WHISK  BROOM  HOLDER. 

4.  A  very  satisfactory  whisk  broom  holder  could  be  made 
by  leaving  out  the  piece   which  forms  the  bottom,   making  the 
front  a  little  wider  and  setting  the  sides  so  they  would  be  some- 
what closer  together  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top. 


29 


NECKTIE  RACK 


MATERIALS. 

Basswood  (Chap.  III.,  Par. 

31). 

1  pc.  %"x4%,"xI6y2"  S  2  S 

Back. 
1  pc.  3/8"xli/2"x  8"       S  2  S 

Brackets. 

1  pc.  i4"xl^"xl4i/2"  S  2  S 

Cross  rod. 

2-34"    No.    6    R.    H.    brass 
screws. 

2  screw  eyes,  No.  114. 
6-1"  brads,  No.  17. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

It  is  a  very  great  convenience  to  keep  the  things  of  daily  use 
where  they  can  be  had  without  any  loss  of  time  or  patience.  Suc- 
cessful business  men  say  that  the  boy  who  learns  to  be  careful 
and  orderly  in  his  daily  habits  has  learned  the  greatest  secret  of 
business  success. 

While  the  necktie  rack  provides  a  handy  place  for  one's  ties, 
so  they  can  always  be  found  when  wanted,  it  also  helps  to  keep 
the  ties  smooth,  free  from  wrinkles  and  in  good  condition  for 
wear. 

Do  not  forget  that  the  value  of  this  article,  like  most  all  con- 
veniences, depends  upon  what  use  you  make  of  it.  Try  to  make  it 
so  perfectly  that  in  appearance  as  well  as  in  service  it  will  be  an 
attractive  article  for  your  room. 


References : 


Handicraft  for  Handy  Boys,  Hall.     Lathrop,  Lee  &  Shepard  Co.,  Boston. 
Boys'  Make  at  Home  Things,  Bailey.    Frederick  A.  Stokes,  Pub. 
The  Boy  Craftsman,  A.  Neely  Hall.    Lathrop,  Lee  &  Shepard  Co.,  Boston. 
Trees  That  Every  Child  Should  Know,  Rogers.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


30 


NECKTIE  RACK 


•II" 

•14-" 


16" 


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IT 
* 

T 

I 

(     &    ! 

1 

s* 

JL 

H   ) 

U.i_ 

J 

u 

tf-hf 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORlGltML  PESIGH 


No.  I 


No.  2 


Ma.  3 


31 

NECKTIE  RACK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BACK. 

The  piece  3/8"x43/4"xl6l/^"  is  for  the  back  of  your  necktie  rack. 
It  is  furnished  S  2  S,  so  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  you  to  plane 
your  surface;  however,  you  can  sandpaper  it  to  make  it  perfectly 
smooth  and  clean  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  If  you  have  made 
an  original  design  for  the  back  you  should  lay  out  your  design  on 
this  board  and  then  cut  it  out.  If  you  are  following  the  drawing 
given,  first  plane  one  edge  of  the  board  perfectly  straight  and 
square  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Square 
one  end,  plane  it  perfectly  smooth  with  the  block  plane  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  5).  Measure  the  length  which  the  back  is  to  be; 
square  off  this  end  and  plane  smooth  with  a  block  plane. 
Gauge  the  width  and  plane  to  the  gauge  line  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 6) .  With  your  lead  pencil  and  ruler,  or  pencil  and  finger, 
gauge  a  pencil  line  all  around  the  edges  for  the  chamfer  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  7-8) . 

The  Brackets. 

Lay  out  a  design  for  the  end  brackets.  This  design  should 
be  laid  out  carefully  on  a  piece  of  paper  before  you  attempt  to 
draw  it  on  your  material.  The  suggestion  for  original  designs 
will  give  you  a  number  of  ideas  from  which  you  should  be  able 
to  work  out  something  of  your  own.  This  design  should  be  drawn 
freehand,  or  with  the  use  of  a  ruler  and  compasses.  It  might  be 
well  to  cut  out  one  bracket,  and  use  it  for  a  pattern  in  laying  out 
the  other  one  to  make  sure  that  the  two  are  exactly  alike.  These 
brackets  may  be  cut  with  a  coping  saw.  The  edges  and  surfaces 
must  be  made  perfectly  smooth  with  a  wood  file  and  sandpaper. 

THE  FRONT  STRIP. 

Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  smooth  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4),  gauge  the  width  with  the  marking  gauge  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  6).  Carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Cut 
it  the  proper  length  and  shape  the  ends. 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  brackets  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  back  piece  with  glue  and 
brads  from  the  back  side.  Test  with  a  try-square  and  be  sure  that 
the  brackets  stand  straight  up  and  down,  and  exactly  the  same  dis- 


32 

tance  from  each  end.  The  front  piece  is  to  be  put  on  with  two  round 
head  screws.  You  should  bore  a  hole  through  the  front  piece  for 
the  screws.  Make  the  holes  just  large  enough  to  receive  the  body 
of  the  screw.  With  a  brad  awl,  make  holes  to  start  the  screws  into 
the  brackets.  When  the  screws  are  tight,  they  should  stand  with 
their  eyes  either  straight  up  and  down  or  straight  across.  When- 
ever screws  are  used  as  a  part  of  the  decoration  of  a  piece  of 
work,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  screw  slots  all  stand 
parallel  or  in  straight  lines. 

FINISHING. 

You  may  stain  your  necktie  rack  a  desirable  color  (Chapter 
IV.,  Paragraph  54).  Be  sure  to  stain  the  back  side  as  well  as  the 
front  side  on  all  pieces.  In  this  way  you  can  prevent  warping. 
It  also  makes  the  work  much  neater  in  appearance.  Finish  with 
shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57)  or  wax  finish  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  56) .  Insert  the  two  screw  eyes,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

RIBBON  RACK. 

1.  This  same  idea  might  be  used  to  make  a  very  pretty  rib- 
bon rack;  if  desired  the  back  might  be  shaped  or  carved  with 
some  decorative  design. 

TOWEL  ROD. 

2.  By  constructing  the  back  and  sides  of  heavier  material, 
possibly  %"  or  3/4",  and  using  a  round  rod,  which  might  be  a  piece 
of  94"  dowel,  a  very  satisfactory  towel  rod  could  be  made. 

TOWEL  ROLLER. 

3.  By  making  a  round  tenon  on  each  end  of  the  rod  and 
making  the  holes  in  the  brackets  large  enough  for  it  to  turn  easily, 
a  towel  roller  may  be  constructed. 

PAPER  RACK. 

4.  By   making  the   side  brackets   considerably   longer,   and 
using  two  or  three  strips  across  the  front,  and  providing  a  bot- 
tom, this  same  plan  can  be  used  in  making  a  paper  or  magazine 
rack  to  hang  on  the  wall. 


33 


HAND  LOOM 

MATERIALS. 

Basswood  (Chap.  III.,  Par. 

31),  or  any  soft  wood. 

2  pcs.  3/4)"xl3/4"xl2"     S  2  S 

Ends. 
2  pcs.  %"xli/2"x!3"  S  2  S 

Sides. 
8  dozen  1"  No.  17  brads. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

One  of  the  oldest  and  most  important  of  all  industries  is  the 
art  of  weaving.  Before  people  understood  how  to  make  cloth  in 
this  way  clothing  was  made  principally  from  hides  of  animals, 
and  even  after  the  process  of  weaving  was  begun  it  had  to  be  done 
entirely  by  hand  on  very  rude  looms. 

Cloth  is  made  by  various  ways  of  plaiting  threads;  these 
threads  usually  run  at  right  angles  to  each  other  and  are  known 
as  warp  and  woof  threads.  The  warp  threads  extend  the  long 
way  of  the  cloth  and  are  therefore  parallel  with  the  selvage  edge; 
the  woof  threads  extend  across  the  warp  threads  from  one  selvage 
edge  to  the  other. 

This  hand  loom  may  be  used  to  illustrate  the  principle  of 
weaving  by  which  all  of  our  clothing  is  made  today.  You  will  find 
it  very  interesting  to  look  up  some  of  the  following  references  re- 
garding this  very  important  industry : 


References : 


What  Can  Be  Done  in  a  Hand  Loom,  by  Mabel  Priestman,  in  American 

Homes  and  Gardens  Magazine,  June,  1909. 

Cotton  Weaving,  by  R.  Marsden.     Geo.  Bell  &  Sons,  New  York,  Pub. 
Hand  Loom  Weaving,  Mattie  Phipps  Todd.     Rand-McNally,  Pub. 
"The  Textile  Industry" — The  Origin  of  Invention,  Mason.    Charles  Scrib- 

ner's  Sons,  Pub. 

Silk,  Its  Origin  and  Culture,  The  Corticelli  Mills,  Florence,  Mass. 
The  Silk  Worm  and  Its  Silk.    Belding  Brothers  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Silk  and  Silk  Manufacture.     Cheney  Brothers,  South  Manchester,  Conn. 
How  the  World  Is  Clothed,  Carpenter.    American  Book  Co. 
The  Tree  Book,  Rogers.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


2-Voc. 


34 


ft 


IZf- 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGN 


No.  I 


35 

HAND  LOOM  SPECIFICATIONS 

ENDS. 

As  the  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  you  will  not  need  to 
plane  the  surfaces.  Plane  one  edge  of  the  end  pieces  (%"xl%"x 
12")  perfectly  straight  and  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4). 
With  the  marking  gauge,  gauge  the  width  of  this  piece  on  both 
surfaces  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6) .  Carefully  plane  to  the  gauge 
line.  Plane  one  end  perfectly  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5). 
Measure  the  length  and  square  off  the  other  end.  In  small  pieces  of 
material  a  wood  file  is  often  used  instead  of  the  block  plane  in 
smoothing  the  ends.  • 

SIDE  STRIPS. 

Plane  one  edge  of  the  side  strips  perfectly  straight  and 
square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  marking  gauge, 
gauge  the  width  on  both  surfaces,  and  plane  carefully  to  the  gauge 
line  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6).  Square  one  end  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  5).  From  this  end  measure  the  length  and  square  the 
other  end.  Make  the  two  side  pieces  exactly  the  same  length  and 
the  same  width.  The  side  pieces  may  be  nailed  on  to  the  ends,  as 
shown  in  the  first  suggestion  for  original  design,  but  it  will  be 
very  much  stronger  if  you  will  follow  the  drawing  in  gaining,  or 
notching,  the  end  pieces  into  the  side  pieces.  These  gains  should 
be  cut  so  that  the  side  pieces  will  exactly  fill  them. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  piece  of  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  glue  and  brads. 
Use  a  very  little  glue  and  spread  evenly  so  it  will  not  spread  out, 
and  soil  the  outside  surfaces  of  your  work.  Test  it  with  a  try- 
square,  and  be  sure  that  you  assemble  the  work  perfectly  square. 
After  the  work  is  completely  assembled,  clean  and  smooth  all  the 
surfaces  with  the  wood  file  and  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 17).  Do  not  destroy  the  corners  in  sandpapering.  Fine 
workmen  are  always  careful  to  respect  the  corners  of  their  work, 
taking  great  care  not  to  rub  them  off  with  the  sandpaper. 

FINISHING. 

This  piece  of  work  should  be  finished  with  shellac.  You  may 
stain  it  if  you  desire,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  Shellac  will  keep 
the  wood  clean  and  free  from  dirt  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57). 


36 

When  the  finish  is  thoroughly  dry,  with  a  pencil  and  finger,  gauge 
a  line  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8)  for  the  brads  on  each  end  piece. 
Set  the  compasses  with  their  points  as  far  apart  as  the  distance  be- 
tween the  brads,  and  step  off  the  spaces  on  each  line.  The  sharp 
points  of  the  compasses  will  make  convenient  holes  in  which  to  start 
the  brads.  Drive  the  brads  into  the  end  pieces,  as  indicated  in  the 
drawing.  These  brads  are  to  hold  the  warp  thread  for  the  weaving. 
The  brads  must  be  very  carefully  driven,  exactly  the  same  distance 
apart,  so  they  will  stand  in  a  straight  line. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

QUILTING  FRAMES. 

1.  The  plan  of  a  rectangular  frame  made  of  strips  can  be 
used  in  making  simple  quilting  frames.     The  frame  should  not  be 
permanently  assembled,  but  fastened  at  each  corner  by  a  large 
nail,  or  wooden  pin  dropped  through  holes  in  the  strips.     There 
should  be  several  holes  in  each  strip  so  the  size  of  the  frame  may 
be  adjusted. 

CURTAIN  STRETCHERS. 

2.  Curtain  stretchers  may  be  made  on  this  same  plan  of  a 
rectangular  frame.     Some  arrangements  should  be  made  for  ad- 
justing the  size  of  the  frame.     This  may  be  done  by  providing  a 
long  slot  in  one  end  of  the  strips,  and  assembling  them  with  small 
bolts  fitted  with  butterfly  nuts.    Each  strip  should  have  a  straight 
row  of  small  brads  near  its  edge  upon  which  to  fasten  the  curtains. 


37 


BOX  KITE 


MATERIALS. 

Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48)  or  any 
soft  wood. 

4  pcs.  5/16"x5/16"x30"  S2S  Cor- 

ner  strips. 

2  pcs.  5/16"x5/16"x23"  S2S   Cross 
braces. 

5  pcs.  5/16"x5/16"xl2"  S  2  S 

Braces. 
Paper  and  string  not  furnished. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Almost  everyone  has  had  some  experience  with  kites,  but 
most  people  consider  them  merely  interesting  toys  without  realiz- 
ing how  much  can  be  learned  by  studying  different  kinds  of  kites, 
how  and  why  they  fly  and  what  these  principles  mean  in  modern 
inventions. 

We  all  remember  what  Benjamin  Franklin  learned  from  his 
kite  experiment,  but  in  the  last  few  years  much  more  has  been 
accomplished  in  the  line  of  airships,  most  of  which  has  been  due 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  science  of  kite  flying. 

There  are  many  different  styles  and  kinds  of  kites,  but  they 
all  mount  the  air  by  the  same  general  principles.  By  a  little  care- 
ful study  and  experimenting  you  can  learn  to  make  kites  and  fly 
them  in  a  scientific  and  accurate  way. 


References : 


The  Construction  and  Flying  of  Kites,  Miller.  Manual  Arts  Press, 
Peoria,  111. 

Kitecraft  and  Kite  Tournaments,  Miller.    Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 

Kitecraft.     School  Arts  Book,  February,  1910. 

Flying  Machines,  J.  H.  Alexander.     David  Williams  Co.,  New  York. 

Building  and  Flying  an  Aeroplane,  Hayward.  Popular  Mechanics  Book 
Dept.,  Chicago. 

Flying  Machines,  The  Boys'  Book  of  Inventions,  Baker.  McClure,  Phil- 
lips Co. 

Santos  Dumont  and  His  Airship — Stories  of  Inventors.  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co. 

The  Aeroplane,  Boys'  Book  of  New  Inventions.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Practical  Aeronautics,  Hayward.     American  Technical  Society,  Chicago. 

Our  Native  Trees,  Harriet  Keeler.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 


38 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PZSIGN 


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39 

BOX  KITE  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  CORNER  STRIPS. 

You  will  probably  have  to  rip  your  kite  strips  from  stock. 
If  you  do,  select  the  best  surface  for  a  working  face  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  for 
a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  marking 
gauge  set  to  the  proper  distance,  gauge  the  width  of  the  strips  on 
both  surfaces  of  the  material  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6). 

NOTE : — If  your  material  is  quite  thin  and  soft,  you  may  be 
able  to  split  it  after  gauging  it  very  deeply  on  both  surfaces;  if 
not,  use  a  knife  or  saw.  Plane  the  edge.  In  planing  a  thin  strip 
you  must  be  very  careful  to  use  a  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  very 
thin  shaving  or  you  may  break  the  strip. 

In  like  manner  prepare  all  of  the  strips.  Cut  the  four  cor- 
ner strips  exactly  the  same  length. 

NOTE : — This  kite  is  to  be  so  assembled  that  it  can  be  taken 
down  and  rolled  up  when  not  in  use.  The  two  side  frames  are 
fastened  permanently  with  glue  and  brads,  but  these  frames  are 
attached  to  each  other  only  by  the  bottom  and  top  stretchers. 
These  stretchers  each  have  a  brad  driven  in  the  end,  and  extend- 
ing far  enough  to  enter  small  holes  in  the  side  cross  rails,  thus 
holding  the  kite  in  shape. 

SIDE  CROSS  RAILS. 

Make  the  four  side  cross  rails  the  required  dimensions.  (Be 
sure  they  are  exactly  the  same  length).  Fasten  them  to  the  cor- 
ner strips  with  small  brads;  cut  short  blocks  about  %"  long,  and 
glue  them  on  the  side  cross  rails  against  the  corner  strips  to 
reinforce  the  joints.  Do  this  on  all  the  joints.  Make  the  two 
side  frames  exactly  the  same  size. 

THE  PAPER  COVERING. 

Select  a  good  tough  paper  (not  too  heavy).  Cut  a  strip  long 
enough  to  go  entirely  around  the  kite  frame,  allowing  2"  for  lap- 
ping. Cut  it  about  l1/^"  wider  than  called  for  in  the  drawing  so 
it  may  be  turned  over  %"  on  each  edge.  Lay  the  paper  flat  on  the 
floor,  or  on  a  long  table,  spread  an  even  coating  of  glue  along  each 
edge,  covering  a  margin  of  about  %".  Lay  a  string  perfectly 
straight  the  full  length  of  the  paper  about  %"  from  the  edge,  and 
fold  the  glued  edge  over  the  string,  thus  forming  a  very  strong 


40 

margin    for    the    paper.     Prepare    both  edges  of  each  piece  in 
similar  manner. 

Determine  the  length  required  to  cover  the  kite  frame  and 
glue  the  ends  of  each  piece  of  paper  togther,  forming  a  complete 
circular  band  of  each.  Be  sure  the  two  are  exactly  the  same  size. 

ASSEMBLING. 

With  a  brad  awl  bore  a  small  hole  in  the  center  of  each  side 
cross  rail  to  receive  the  brads.  Drive  a  brad  in  one  end  of  one 
of  the  stretchers,  place  the  side  frames  inside  the  paper  bands, 
and  with  one  end  of  the  stretcher  in  its  proper  place,  spread  the 
kite  into  its  desired  shape  and  measure  the  length  to  cut  this 
stretcher.  Cut  it  long  enough  so  that  when  in  position  the  paper 
will  be  stretched  perfectly  smooth.  In  like  manner  cut  the  sec- 
ond stretcher.  Insert  brads  in  the  second  end  of  each  stretcher. 

THE  BRIDLE. 

Attach  the  bridle  to  the  corner  strips,  as  indicated  in  the 
drawing;  the  strings  may  be  simply  tied  around  the  corner  strips 
in  small  notches  to  prevent  slipping.  A  more  substantial  way  of 
attaching  the  bridle  is  to  use  a  piece  of  small,  flat  braid  moistened 
in  glue  and  wrapped  around  the  corner  strips  so  as  to  form  loops 
to  which  the  bridle  may  be  attached. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 
PLAIN  KITE  WITH  TAIL. 

1.  The  plain  flat  kite  with  two  or  three  sticks,  may  be  made 
as  shown  in  suggestions  Nos.  1  and  2.    This  kind  of  kite  requires 
a  tail,  which   serves  as  a  balance,   and  prevents   darting.     The 
bridle  should  be  attached  to  each  of  the  sticks  a  short  distance 
from  the  central  point;  these  strings  are  all  brought  together  and 
tied  a  few  inches  from  the  face  of  the  kite.    The  flying  string  is 
attached  to  this  bridle. 

TAILLESS  KITE. 

2.  The  tailless  kites  are  very  interesting  and  the  most  diffi- 
cult to  make;  they  cannot  be  made  flat  like  the  kites  which  have 
tails,  but  must  be  considerably  bowed,  as  shown  in  suggestion  No. 
3.     The  paper  covering  should  be  very  loose.     The  bridle  is  at- 
tached on  the  outside  of  the  bow;   that    is,    so   the   wind   blows 
against  the  rounding  side  of  the  kite  as  it  goes  up. 


41 


COAT  HANGER 

MATERIALS. 

Poplar     (Chap.    III.,   Par. 

42)  or  any  soft  wood. 

1  pc.  %"x4%"xlS"    S  2  S 

Hanger. 
1  pc.  Cop.  Bess,  rod  5/32" 

x8"  Hook. 
1  Cop.  washer  5/32". 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

A  coat  hanger  should  be  more  than  simply  a  place  to  hang  a 
coat;  it  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  keep  the  coat  from  wrinkling. 
This  design  provides  a  support  for  the  collar,  which  is  often 
omitted  in  a  shop-made  coat  hanger.  Notice  in  the  picture  that 
the  top  is  not  a  continuous  curve.  If  you  will  experiment  by 
hanging  the  coat  on  a  hanger  made  with  a  continual  curve,  and 
then  on  a  hanger  made  like  the  illustration,  you  will  see  how  much 
more  satisfactorily  this  shape  protects  the  form  of  the  shoulders 
and  collar  of  the  coat. 

A  pole  such  as  a  dowel  rod  or  a  broomstick  furnishes  the  most 
convenient  arrangement  for  a  wardrobe,  because  it  will  hold  a 
great  many  coat  hangers  like  this  without  crushing  the  garment. 
This  pole  is  simply  a  horizontal  rod  placed  at  the  convenient 
height  and  so  none  of  the  garments  will  touch  the  wall  when  they 
are  hanging  in  position. 


References: 


Home  Occupations  for  Boys.    George  W.  Jacobs  &  Co. 
Handy  Book  for  Boys,  D.  C.  Beard.    Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 
Educational  Woodwork  for  Home  and  School.     Park-Macmillan  Co. 
The  Boy  Mechanic,  Windsor.    Popular  Mechanics  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Boys'  Useful  Pastimes,  Griffith.    Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 
Timber  and  Logging,  How  the  World  is  Housed,  Carpenter.     American 
Book  Co. 


42 


CO  AT  HANGER 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGIHflL  PESIGH 


NQ   O       CHpForJrousers 


No.  4- 


43 

COAT  HANGER  SPECIFICATIONS 

If  this  piece  of  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary for  you  to  plane  the  surface,  for  it  will  be  smooth  enough  for 
you  to  lay  out  your  work.  Select  the  best  surface,  and  make  it  the 
working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2) ;  plane  one  edge  perfectly 
straight  and  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  for  a  working  edge. 
Plane  one  end  perfectly  square  with  the  working  edge  and  the 
working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) .  It  will  not  be  necessary 
for  you  to  plane  the  other  edge,  nor  the  other  end,  but  you  should 
make  all  measurements  from  the  working  edge  and  working  end. 
With  a  lead  pencil,  carefully  lay  out  the  work  on  the  working  face. 
You  will  see  in  the  drawing  that  some  of  the  curves  are  to  be  laid 
out  with  the  compasses;  some  of  these  may  be  drawn  free  hand. 
You  may  use  your  own  ideas  in  laying  out  this  piece  of  work,  but 
it  is  most  important  that  you  make  the  two  sides  of  the  coat 
hanger  alike.  Whatever  curves  you  use  must  be  the  same  on  both 
sides.  With  the  turning  saw,  or  coping  saw,  saw  as  laid  out.  With 
the  drawing  knife,  or  wood  file,  carefully  round  all  the  curved  edges 
of  the  coat  hanger. 

In  the  front  view,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  the  inside  line  in- 
dicates where  the  round  edge  begins.  You  may  leave  a  well-defined 
line  here  on  each  surface  of  the  work,  or  round  it  down,  making  a 
perfect,  continuous  curve,  as  you  see  fit.  Sometimes  the  under  side 
of  a  coat  hanger  is  not  rounded ;  you  may  leave  these  edges  square 
if  you  like.  Be  sure  that  you  remove  all  irregularities,  making  the 
coat  hanger  perfectly  smooth. 

THE  HOOK. 

You  are  to  make  your  own  hook  from  a  piece  of  bessemer  rod. 
(If  you  do  not  care  to  do  this,  you  may  purchase  a  screw  hook  from 
a  hardware  store).  You  will  find  it  a  very  interesting  piece  of 
work  to  make  your  own  hook.  It  is  not  a  difficult  task,  and  if  you 
are  careful  you  can  easily  do  it.  If  your  shop  is  provided  with  an 
iron  cone,  or  a  vise  anvil,  you  can  readily  bend  the  bessemer  rod  the 
desired  shape.  If  you  do  not  have  the  cone,  you  might  be  able  to 
find  a  small  piece  of  old  iron  pipe,  or  other  cylinder,  which  would 
answer  very  well.  A  round  (cylindrical)  piece  of  hard  wood  might 
be  prepared  on  purpose  for  this  work.  Grasp  the  rod  (near  the 
end)  firmly  with  the  pliers,  and  form  the  hook  by  wrapping  it 
around  the  cylinder.  A  few  light  blows  with  the  hammer  will  com- 


44 

plete  the  bending.    Do  not  hammer  the  rod  unnecessarily,  as  this 
will  bruise  and  disfigure  it. 

Bore  a  hole  in  the  coat  hanger  large  enough  to  allow  the  rod 
to  turn  easily.  Put  the  washer  over  the  lower  end  of  the  rod,  and 
with  a  few  light  blows  of  the  hammer,  rivet  it  in  position.  If  this 
work  is  carefully  done  the  coat  hanger  will  turn  on  the  hook,  thus 
making  it  quite  convenient  in  the  hanging  of  garments. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  clean  piece  of  sandpaper,  remove  all  tool  marks,  and 
finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57).  The  wood  part 
should  be  given  three  or  more  coats,  and  when  the  last  coat  is  per- 
fectly dry  it  should  be  rubbed  smooth  with  a  piece  of  well  worn 
sandpaper,  moistened  with  linseed  oil. 

In  the  suggestions  for  original  designs  you  will  see  ways  of 
making  coat  hangers  out  of  very  small  pieces  of  material.  Nos.  3 
and  4  can  be  made  from  narrow  strips  of  material,  but  they  require 
careful  work  in  making  the  joints.  No.  3  is  joined  with  a  dowel; 
No.  4  is  a  half  lap  joint. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SKIRT  HANGER. 

1.  In  modifying  this  plan  to  make  a  skirt  hanger  it  would 
be  necessary  to  change  it  only  in  length ;  it  may  be  made  as  much 
shorter  as  desirable. 

SKIRT  OR  COAT  HANGER  MADE  FROM  A  HOOP. 

2.  A  very  satisfactory  skirt  or  coat  hanger  may  be  made 
from  an  old  wooden  hoop  by  attaching  the  hook,  shaping  the  wood 
properly  and  covering  it  neatly  with  a  remnant  of  silk,  cretonne 
or  any  other  suitable  material.     The  hoop  is  sometimes  wrapped 
with  cotton  batting  before  it  is  covered  to  give  it  a  rounder  ap- 
pearance. 


45 


BROOM  HOLDER 

MATERIALS. 

Yellow    Pine    (Chap.    III., 

Par.  48)  or  any  soft 

wood. 

1  pc.  %"x3i/2"x9i/2"     S  2  S 

Back. 
1  pc.  %"x3"x8"  S  2  S 

Hanger. 
2-11/2"    No.    10    F.    H.    B. 

screws. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  most  usual  place  to  find  a  floor  broom  is  leaning  some- 
where in  a  corner  with  its  weight  resting  on  the  straw.  This 
helps  to  explain  why  so  many  brooms  have  their  straws  bent  out 
of  shape  and  in  a  poor  position  to  do  good  work.  If  a  damp  broom 
is  left  standing  with  the  weight  on  the  straw  it  will  quite  likely  be 
bent  and  when  dry  will  remain  in  that  unsatisfactory  shape. 

This  illustration  shows  a  broom  holder  which  not  only  fur- 
nishes a  place  where  the  broom  should  always  be  found,  but  also 
avoids  the  difficulty  just  explained. 

Some  people  claim  that  a  broom  should  hang  with  the  straw 
down  in  order  to  prevent  any  moisture  which  might  be  in  it  from 
draining  into  the  body  of  the  broom.  This  is  not  an  important 
matter,  for  a  broom  should  never  be  wet  enough  to  drip  when 
hung  up. 


References : 


Brushes  and  Brooms,  International  Encyclopedia. 

How  to  Make  Common  Things,  J.  A.  Bower.    E.  S.  Gorham,  Pub. 

Manual  Training  for  Common  Schools,  Allen  &  Cotton.  Manual  Arts 
Press,  Peoria,  111. 

Handwork  for  Boys,  Pabst. 

Broom  Corn,  Young  Folks'  Cyclopedia  of  Common  Things,  by  Champlin. 
Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

The  Book  of  Useful  Plants,  Julia  Rogers.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co., 
New  York. 

The  Basket  Maker,  Luther  W.  Turner.  Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Co.,  Chi- 
cago. 

The  Story  of  Lumber,  Sara  W.  Basset.    Penn  Pub.  Co. 


46 


BROOM  HOLDER 


*  d£  ,J 

«:  r( 

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=TKI 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR 


No.3 


No.4 


47 

BROOM  HOLDER  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BACK. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
for  you  to  plane  the  surface.  It  should,  however,  be  carefully 
smoothed  with  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  Select 
one  surface  for  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2). 
Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  with  the  working 
face;  mark  this  the  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  ; 
prepare  a  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  From  the 
working  end  measure  and  cut  the  length  given  in  the  drawing. 
Carefully  gauge  the  width  on  both  surfaces  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 6)  ;  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  With  a  lead  pencil  and  ruler 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  7),  or  with  the  lead  pencil  and  finger 
(Chapter  II. ,  Paragraph  8),  carefully  gauge  for  the  chamfer.  As 
this  chamfer  is  to  be  cut  entirely  around  this  piece  of  material, 
you  must  gauge  for  it  on  all  edges  and  entirely  around  on  the 
working  face.  Form  the  chamfer  by  planing  to  these  gauge  lines 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  19).  In  planing  a  chamfer  always  be 
sure  to  leave  sharp,  well-defined  corners.  Do  not  give  it  a  rounded 
appearance. 

THE  HOLDER. 

Prepare  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2) ;  plane 
one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  and  mark  it  the  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Plane  one  end  perfectly  square 
with  the  working  face  and  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
5).  In  laying  out  your  design,  make  all  measurements  from  the 
working  face  and  the  working  edge.  Carefully  lay  out  your 
chosen  design  on  the  working  face.  This  may  be  partly  laid  out 
with  the  compasses  and  finished  freehand.  Be  sure  the  two  sides 
are  alike.  With  the  turning  saw,  coping  or  compass  saw  (if  you 
have  curves  in  your  design)  cut  out  the  shape  of  the  holder.  Care- 
fully smooth  all  of  the  edges  with  the  wood  file,  and  finish  them 
with  sandpaper.  Make  sure  that  you  remove  all  tool  marks  and 
leave  the  edges  perfectly  square. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  piece  of  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  glue  and  screws. 
Locate  the  holes  for  the  screws,  bore  through  the  back  piece  with 
a  bit  large  enough  to  allow  the  screws  to  go  through  easily  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  9)  ;  also  bore  the  hanging  hole.  Use  a  smaller 


48 

bit  and  bore  in  the  holder  to  receive  the  screws.     Be  sure  the 
holder  stands  perfectly  square  on  the  back  piece. 

FINISHING. 

When  your  work  is  assembled,  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16)  remove  all  rough  places,  pencil  or  tool 
marks.  Sandpaper  with  a  very  fine,  clean  piece  of  sandpaper.  Stain 
the  work  the  desired  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54).  Finish 
with  two  or  more  coats  of  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57) . 

In  small  pieces  of  work  like  this  all  back  parts  should  also  be 
stained  and  shellaced. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

TOOL  RACKS. 

1.  This  principle  of  using  a  back,  with  some  special  sort  of 
holder  attached,  may  be  employed  in  a  great  many  different  styles 
of  tool  racks.     By  making  the  back  very  much  longer  and  using 
a  strip  with  a  number  of  suitable  holes  in  it  for  a  holder,  a  very 
convenient  rack  may  be  provided  for   such   tools    as    files,    bits, 
screwdrivers  and  chisels. 

PANTRY  WALL  RACK. 

2.  A  back  made  as  long  as  desirable  and  provided  with  hooks, 
dowel  pins,  or  even  nails,  will  furnish  a  convenient  rack  for  many 
things  which  are  usually  kept  in  the  pantry.    The  particular  style 
of  hook  or  hanger  may  be  selected  to  suit  the  articles  to  be  hung. 

HAT  RACK. 

3.  By  making  the  back  a  little  more  elaborate,  and  perhaps 
adding  some  artistic  effect  in  the  way  of  a  suitable  design,  a  very 
satisfactory  hat  rack  may  be  provided.    The  hangers  may  be  made 
of  wood,  or  some  pleasing  style  of  hook  may  be  purchased. 


49 


BENCH  HOOK 


MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48) 
or  any  soft  wood. 

1  pc.  ys'^a/^'xlO"  S  2  S  Base  and 

blocks. 
4-11/2"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

While  most  work  benches  are  provided  with  a  vise  in  which 
to  hold  small  pieces  of  material,  yet  a  bench  hook  provides  a  very 
satisfactory  means  of  holding  small  pieces  of  sawing  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  vise;  it  also  serves  a  great  many  purposes  for  which  a 
vise  cannot  be  used. 

The  bench  hook  should  be  kept  hanging  either  on  the  leg  of 
the  bench  or  in  some  other  convenient  place,  where  it  can  always 
be  had  when  needed.  The  proper  use  of  a  bench  hook  will  prevent 
sawing  the  bench  top  or  marring  it  with  the  chisel,  for  this  bench 
hook  is  made  wide  enough  to  provide  a  good  surface  on  which  to 
do  chiseling. 

The  bench  hook  shown  in  this  lesson  provides  the  sawing 
space  on  the  right-hand  side.  If  the  hook  is  to  be  used  by  a  left- 
handed  person,  the  block  should  be  set  on  in  such  a  way  as  to 
leave  the  sawing  margin  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  bench  hook. 
A  bench  hook  could  be  made  with  one  right  and  one  left-hand  side. 


References: 


The  Amateur  Mechanic's  Workshop.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
Elementary  Woodworking,  Edwin  Foster.     Ginn  &  Co. 
The  Handy  Boy,  A.  Neely  Hall.    Lathrop,  Lee  &  Shepard  Co. 
The  First  Book  of  Forestry,  Ernest  Thompson  Seton.     Doubleday,  Page 
&  Co. 


50 


BENCH  HOOK 


-4- 


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.  d         * 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR.  ORIGIHAL  DESIGH 


1 
1 

1 

1 

J 

1 

Cuf  From  Solid  Slock  \       |l 

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'•    ' 

u 

H        n 

1     u 

Detail  Shotting  Panel  Connection 
No.2 


51 

BENCH  HOOK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BASE. 

If  your  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  (surfaced  on  two  sides)  it 
will  not  be  necessary  for  you  to  plane  the  surface.  Select  one  sur- 
face for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2)  ;  plane  one 
edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  with  the  working  face.  Mark 
it  the  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Plane  one  end 
perfectly  straight  and  square  with  the  working  face  and  the  work- 
ing edge.  Mark  this  the  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
5).  Measure  the  length  (14")  from  the  working  end;  at  this 
point  square  a  line  on  the  working  face,  square  it  around,  and  plane 
the  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5). 

(NOTE : — The  remaining  material  is  to  make  the  two  blocks.) 
Gauge  the  width  4i/£"  on  both  surfaces   (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 6)  ;  plane  to  the  gauge  line;  leave  all  corners  square  and 
sharp. 

THE  BLOCKS. 

The  two  blocks  are  to  be  just  alike  (2*4 "x4").  From  the 
working  edge  gauge  the  width  of  one  of  the  blocks  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  6)  ;  from  the  other  edge  gauge  another  line  on  the 
same  surface.  Fasten  the  material  in  the  vise,  and  with  a  ripsaw 
rip  between  the  two  gauge  lines.  Plane  to  the  gauge  line  on  each 
block.  With  the  try-square,  carefully  test  each  block  on  all  edges 
and  all  corners;  make  them  perfectly  square. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  is  to  be  assembled  with  glue  and  screws  (or  with  dowels 
if  you  care  to  follow  the  idea  given  in  the  Suggestions  for  Original 
Designs  No.  2).  If  you  use  screws,  bore  through  the  block  with 
a  bit  large  enough  to  allow  the  screws  to  pass  through  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  9).  Countersink  these  holes  so  the  heads  of  the 
screws  will  be  slightly  below  the  surface  of  the  block.  Hold  the 
blocks  (one  at  a  time)  in  their  proper  positions,  and  with  a  brad 
awl,  reaching  through  the  holes,  in  each  block  indicate  on  the  base 
where  to  bore  for  the  screws.  With  a  brad  awl,  or  a  small  bit, 
make  holes  in  which  to  start  the  screws.  Spread  a  thin,  even 
coating  of  glue  on  the  side  of  the  block  which  is  to  join  the  base. 
Fasten  the  blocks  in  place  with  screws.  When  the  screws  are 
tight  they  should  stand  with  their  slots  in  the  same  direction.  It 
is  a  general  principle  of  mechanics  that  wherever  screws  show 
the  slots  should  stand  in  line. 


52 
FINISHING. 

When  the  work  is  assembled,  clean  it  with  sandpaper,  mak- 
ing sure  to  remove  any  surplus  glue  that  may  have  spread  out  of 
the  edges  of  the  joints.  It  may  be  necessary  to  plane  the  outside 
edges  of  the  joints  to  make  them  perfectly  even.  Bore  the  1/4" 
hanging  hole,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
9).  Finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57).  This 
bench  hook  is  a  very  serviceable  article  and  should  be  used  on 
your  bench  for  sawing  or  chiseling  purposes. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

WALKING  STILTS. 

1.  The  principle  of  planing  material  straight  and  square,  and 
of  assembling  with  screws  may  be  employed  in  a  great  many  dif- 
ferent articles  about  the  home.     For  exercise  and  amusement  it 
may  be  applied  to  the  making  of  stilts.     Plane  two  strong  strips 
of  any  kind  of  sound  material  straight  and  smooth.    They  may  be 
made  as  long  as  desirable,  but  should  not  be  made  too  high  for 
first  experience.     Prepare  two  triangular  blocks  by  first  making 
a  rectangular  block  about  four  by  eight  inches,  then  sawing  it  di- 
agonally.     Fasten   these   blocks   to   the   uprights    (at   the   same 
height)   with  screws  through  the  uprights    into    the   blocks.      A 
piece  of  strap  iron  or  leather  may  be  used  to  form  a  loop  to  help 
hold  the  foot  in  place. 

SWING  BOARD. 

2.  After  planing  a  board  straight  and  square,  it  may  easily 
be  made  into  a  swing  board  by  providing  notches  for  the  rope. 
These  notches  can  be  best  prepared  by  boring  a  hole  very  close  to 
each  end  (perhaps  within  1"  or  li/£"  of  the  end)  and  sawing  out 
a  sort  of  "V"  shaped  notch  to  the  hole. 


53 

SEED  CORN  RACK 

MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48)  or 
any  soft  wood. 

1  pc.  y8"x2"x36"    Rough  or  S  2  S 
10  nails,  lOd  common. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

People  who  are  interested  in  agriculture,  or  in  fact  in  the 
growing  of  any  sort  of  plants,  are  beginning  to  realize  the  value 
of  planting  only  good  seed.  In  order  to  produce  excellent,  high- 
yielding  corn  it  is  necessary  to  use  seed  from  that  sort  of  corn 
plant.  Men  who  have  made  a  scientific  study  of  corn  tell  us  that 
seed  corn  should  be  very  carefully  selected,  taking  into  consider- 
ation not  only  the  size,  shape,  kernel  depth,  variety  and  vitality 
of  the  ear,  but  also  the  proper  characteristic  of  the  mother  plant. 
Seed  corn  should  be  very  carefully  stored  during  the  winter 
where  it  will  be  free  from  rats  and  mice,  dampness  and  other 
conditions  which  render  it  unfit  for  use. 

This  lesson  shows  you  how  to  make  a  very  convenient  rack 
to  hold  ten  or  twenty  ears.  When  it  is  filled  with  the  selected 
corn  it  should  be  hung  from  a  rafter  or  other  timber  in  the  barn 
or  shed  loft. 


References : 


U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  229,  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  409,  School  Lessons  on  Corn. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  313,  Harvesting  and  Storing  Corn. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  298,  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products. 

Book  of  Corn.  Prof.  J.  R.  Steward,  Muncie  Normal,  Muncie,  Ind. 

The  Book  of  Corn,  Herbert  Myrick.     Orange-Judd  Co.,  Publishers. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  81,  Corn  Culture  in  the  South. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  199,  Corn  Growing. 

The  Tree  Doctor.    Davey. 


54 


ft 


0- 


T 


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CO 

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to 


-A-' 


SEED  CORN  RACK 


N. 


X 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGh 


1 

V 

1 

s 

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/ 

V 

s 

:               N 

s 

V 

Twisted  ^ 
W>-<?  ^ 

x 

s 
s 
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N 
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X 

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'Hails  Driven 
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s* 

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, 

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s 

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V 

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No.l 


No.  2 


55 

SEED  CORN  RACK  SPECIFICATIONS 

As  one  of  the  principal  things  for  you  to  learn  in  this  lesson 
is  to  plane  a  long  strip  of  material  so  it  will  be  perfectly  straight 
and  square,  you  should  perform  each  operation  very  carefully.  If 
your  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  you 
to  surface  the  sides;  if  not,  first  plane  one  surface  smooth  and 
straight  for  your  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2). 
Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  with  the  working 
face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  ;  mark  this  the  working  edge. 
With  your  try-square  lay  out,  and  with  the  back  saw  or  panel  saw 
saw  one  end  perfectly  square  with  the  working  face  and  the  work- 
ing edge;  mark  this  the  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5). 
With  your  marking  gauge  (held  against  the  working  edge)  gauge 
the  width  on  each  surface  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6).  Careful- 
ly plane  to  the  gauge  line.  From  the  working  end  measure  the 
desired  length  and  square  off  the  end.  Lay  out  and  chamfer  the 
upper  corners,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing. 

This  chamfer  may  be  cut  in  a  miter  box,  if  your  shop  is  pro- 
vided with  one,  or  you  may  lay  out  the  regular  half-pitch  cut 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  24)  with  the  large  steel  square,  and  from 
this  cut  set  the  T-bevel  and  use  it  in  laying  out.  These  marks 
should  be  squared  across  the  edges  with  the  T-square.  Fasten  the 
material  in  the  vise,  or  hold  it  on  the  bench  hook  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  5),  and  saw  off  the  corners  as  laid  out. 

Bore  the  hole  for  the  hanger  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9). 
Lay  out  positions  for  the  nails  3"  apart.  To  do  this  gauge  a  pencil 
line  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  7  or  8)  in  the  center  of  the  working 
face.  Set  the  compasses  with  the  points  3"  apart;  step  off  the 
spaces  on  the  pencil  line  to  mark  places  for  the  nails.  Holes  should 
be  bored  with  a  small  bit  before  attempting  to  drive  the  nails. 
Make  sure  that  all  the  holes  are  bored  at  the  same  angle  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  12). 

ASSEMBLING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper,  or  a  keen  plane  set  to  take  a  very 
thin  shaving,  remove  all  pencil  or  tool  marks.  Be  sure  to  leave 
the  corners  perfectly  straight  and  sharp.  From  the  back  side 
drive  a  nail  through  each  hole  (these  nails  will  incline  upward). 
Settle  the  heads  slightly  into  the  wood  by  one  or  two  careful  blows 
with  the  hammer.  This  will  prevent  the  nail  from  pushing  out 
when  the  corn  is  put  in. 


56 
FINISHING. 

Although  a  fine  finish  is  not  required  on  a  piece  of  work  of 
this  kind,  yet  it  would  be  well  to  give  it  a  coat  of  shellac  (Chap- 
ter IV.,  Paragraph  57)  or  paint  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

CLOTHESLINE  POLE. 

1.  The  principle  of  planing  out  a  long,  straight  strip  of  ma- 
terial can  be  applied  to  a  great  many  projects.     The  clothesline 
pole  is  such  a  strip  cut  to  a  desirable  length,  usually  about  7  to  9 
feet  long.     It  should  have  a  "V"  shaped  notch  sawed  in  one  end 
to  receive  the  clothesline. 

TEN-FOOT  POLE. 

2.  A  ten-foot  pole  will  be  found  quite  convenient  about  the 
farm  where  measurements  must  occasionally  be  made.      It   con- 
sists of  a  straight  pole,  neatly  planed,  with  the  dimensions  for  feet, 
halves  and  quarters  plainly  marked.    For  convenience  and  accuracy, 
the  last  foot  might  be  marked  off  in  inches.    A  rod-pole  could  just 
as  easily  be  made  if  desired. 

PLUMB  BOB. 

3.  A  plumb  bob,  or  plumb  rule  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  a 
very  handy  tool  where  any  kind  of  building  work  is  going  on.    The 
only  essential  principle  in  its  construction  is  the  matter  of  getting 
the  edges  perfectly  straight  and  parallel,  and  of  gauging  the  test- 
ing line  exactly  in  the  middle.     It  should  have  a  "V"  shaped,  or 
circular,  fork  in  the  lower  end  large  enough  to  allow  the  weight 
or  plummet  to  swing  freely. 

If  desirable,  and  one  is  willing  to  exercise  sufficient  care,  a 
very  satisfactory  spirit  level  may  be  made  by  getting  a  small  level 
tube  from  the  hardware  store,  and  installing  it  in  one  edge  of  the 
plumb  bob.  The  protecting  plate  over  the  tube  may  be  made  of  a 
small  piece  of  sheet  brass,  or  it  too  may  be  purchased. 


57 


FEED  SCOOP 

MATERIALS. 

Poplar    (Chap.    III.,    Par. 

42)  or  any  soft  wood. 

1  pc.  7/8"x5l/2"x6i/2"     S  2  S 

Back. 
1  pc.  li/8"xli/8"x5i/2"  rough 

Handle. 
1    pc.    galvanized    10"xl5" 

Body  of  Scoop. 
5  dozen      "  No.  18  brads. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Handy  equipment  is  a  great  help  in  making  everyday  tasks 
lighter  and  more  pleasant  and  much  of  this  equipment  can  be  pro- 
vided without  any  particular  expense. 

In  every  home  there  are  a  number  of  purposes  for  which  neat, 
well-made  scoops  would  be  convenient.  The  purpose  for  which  the 
scoop  is  to  be  used  will  determine  its  size  and  shape.  For  house 
use,  in  salt,  sugar  or  flour,  the  smaller  neat  size  would  be  more  ap- 
propriate ;  for  use  on  the  farm,  in  the  barn  or  poultry  house,  larger 
and  heavier  scoops  should  be  provided  for  handling  ground  feed 
and  small  grain.  Such  scoops  could  be  made  so  as  to  serve  as  an 
approximate  measure  and  thus  enable  one  to  feed  accurate  portions 
in  making  up  rations. 


References : 


Tin  Truth.    Follansbee  Brothers  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Tin — Source,  Production  and  Manufacture.     International  Encyclopedia. 

Tin,  in  Stories  of  Industries,  Chase  and  Clow.    Educational  Pub.  Co. 

The  Story  of  Iron,  Elizabeth  Samuel.    The  Penn  Pub.  Co. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  99,  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees. 


58 


-10' 


Si 


Tin  or  Galvanized  '-IN   -i  - 1~ 


T 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  Ptt/GN 


Tin 


SAL  T  OR  SUGAR  SCOOP 


o 


Sides  of  Wood 


I 


SheetMefal 


DUSTPAN  WITH  LONG  HANDLE 


59 

FEED  SCOOP  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BACK. 

Plane  one  surface  of  this  piece  perfectly  straight  and  smooth 
for  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2)  ;  plane  one  edge 
straight  and  square  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
4).  Square  and  saw,  if  necessary,  and  plane  one  end  square  with 
the  working  face  and  working  edge  for  a  working  end  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  5) .  Measure  and  cut  this  piece  the  required  length. 
With  the  compasses  set  to  the  proper  radius,  lay  out  the  curve  for 
the  top  edge  of  this  piece,  saw  out  with  the  coping  or  compass  saw, 
and  smooth  with  a  sharp  block  plane  or  wood  file.  Locate  and 
bore  the  hole  for  the  handle  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9). 

THE  HANDLE. 

In  shaping  a  handle  of  this  kind  it  is  well  first  to  make  the 
material  perfectly  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2  and  4) ;  next 
plane  off  the  corners,  making  an  octagon ;  then  the  corners  should 
be  planed  off  until  the  shape  approaches  a  cylinder.  A  sharp 
Jcnife  may  be  used  to  make  the  curved  shape  to  the  handle.  You 
must  depend  upon  your  eye  and  judgment  very  largely  in  shaping 
such  a  handle.  Do  not  attempt  to  take  deep  shavings ;  cut  away  but 
little  at  a  time,  and  keep  turning  the  handle  from  side  to  side  so  you 
may  be  able  to  keep  the  curves  the  same  on  all  sides. 

THE  BODY  OF  THE  SCOOP. 

The  body  of  this  scoop  is  to  be  made  of  galvanized  sheet  iron ; 
it  will  require  a  piece  10"  long,  and  wide  enough  to  form  the  bot- 
tom plus  the  two  sides  (15").  With  the  square  lay  out  an  exact 
rectangle  of  this  size,  square  pencil  lines  across  it  indicating 
where  it  is  to  be  bent  to  form  the  corners ;  be  sure  these  lines  are 
just  wide  enough  apart  to  receive  the  back  which  you  have  al- 
ready made.  With  the  compasses  lay  out  the  curves  indicating 
where  the  corners  are  to  be  cut  off.  With  tinner's  snips,  or  an 
old  pair  of  heavy  shears,  cut  out  the  shape  of  the  body  as  laid  out. 
Place  the  sheet  of  galvanized  iron  between  two  straight-edged 
boards  with  the  pencil  line  (for  the  corner  bend)  exactly  even 
with  the  edge  of  the  board;  clamp  in  the  vise  and  bend  the  sheet 
iron  to  a  right  angle.  A  few  light  blows  with  the  hammer  will 
complete  the  angle  and  make  it  perfectly  square.  Bend  the  other 
side  in  like  manner. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Glue  the  handle  into  the  back ;  the  end  which  extends  through 
may  be  split  and  wedged,  then  sawed  off  even  and  planed  smooth 


60 

with  the  surface.    Fasten  the  sheet  iron  body  in  position  by  nail- 
ing it  with  small  brads  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  21). 

FINISHING. 

Sandpaper  the  wood  parts  perfectly  smooth  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraphs  16  and  17)  and  give  them  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57).  With  a  file  or  piece  of  emory  or 
sandpaper  rub  off  any  rough  or  sharp  edges  of  the  sheet  iron 
which  may  be  exposed  in  such  a  way  as  to  cut  one's  hands. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SOIL  SCOOP. 

1.  In  connection  with  the  class  work  in  agriculture,  where 
there  will  be  a  number  of  experiments  calling  for  the  handling  of 
soils,  a  few  scoops  made  in  this  way  will  be  found  very  convenient. 
Discarded  tin  cans,  such  as  baking  powder,  coffee  or  fruit  cans  may 
be  used.    Cut  one  end  to  the  desired  shape  for  the  point  of  the  scoop, 
the  other  end  need  not  be  removed ;  a  wooden  end  should  be  shaped 
to  fit  this  end  snugly ;  it  should  be  fastened  in  position  (in  the  inside 
of  the  scoop)  with  brads  into  its  edge ;  a  screw  through  the  wood 
(and  the  tin  end)  into  the  end  of  the  handle  will  hold  it  firmly  in 
place. 

DUST  PAN. 

2.  A  very  convenient  dust  pan,  which  has  the  advantage  of 
serving  also  as  a  sort  of  pail  in  carrying  out  the  dust,  can  be  made 
very  easily  in  accordance  with  the  Suggestions  for  Original  Design. 
The  two  wooden  sides  are  placed  as  far  apart  as  one  would  de- 
sire the  width  of  the  dust  pan  to  be  and  a  continuous  piece  of 
sheet  iron  is  bent  around  them  and  fastened  with  brads.    A  piece 
of  heavy,  stiff  wire  is  bent  and  placed  in  holes  in  the  sides  to  serve 
as  a  bail  and  a  long  handle  of  desired  length  is  to  be  attached  to 
this  bail. 

WATERING  OR  FEED  TROUGH  FOR  CHICKENS. 

3.  Following  this  same  principle  of  construction  a  very  satis- 
factory watering  or  feed  trough  for  chickens  may  be  made.    Take 
a  sheet  of  galvanized  iron  or  tin  of  the  desired  size  and  turn  up 
the  two  sides  as  far  as  the  required  depth  of  the  trough;  prepare 
wooden  ends  of  the  proper  dimensions,  and  fasten  them  into  posi- 
tion by  brads  driven  through  the  metal.    If  it  is  to  hold  water,  the 
brads  must  be  very  close  together;    the   wood   parts    should    be 
painted. 


61 


BRACKET  SHELF 


MATERIALS. 
Yellow    Pine    (Chap.   III., 
Par.  48)  or  any  soft 
wood. 

1  pc.  78"x6i/4"x21  V2"    S  2  S 

Top. 
1  pc.  7/8"x7^"xl9i/2"     S  2  S 

Back. 
1  pc.  7/8"x5"xlO"  S  2  S 

Brackets. 
12-6d  finishing  nails. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  bracket  shelf  is  one  of  the  best-known  and  oldest  forms  of 
equipment  found  in  the  home.  This  article  of  furniture  admits  of 
more  variations  in  size,  function  and  style  than  possibly  any  arti- 
cle found  in  house  equipment.  The  old-fashioned  long  mantle  above 
the  fireplace  was  one  form  of  bracket  shelf.  Other  numerous  forms 
serve  various  purposes,  such  as  a  place  for  the  family  clock,  or  in 
some  instances  a  sort  of  "catch-all"  for  things  which  have  no  bet- 
ter place. 

In  designing  a  bracket  shelf  you  should  consider  very  carefully 
for  what  purpose  it  is  to  be  used,  and  first  of  all  make  it  sufficiently 
substantial  to  serve  its  purpose  properly,  then  consider  the  point  of 
making  it  attractive  in  appearance. 


References : 


Woodworking  for  Beginners,  Wheeler.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 
Elementary  Woodwork,  F.  H.  Selden.    Rand-McNally  Co.,  Chicago. 
Beginning  Woodwork  at  Home  and  in  School,  Van  Duesen.    Manual  Arts 

Press,  Peoria,  111. 
Woodworking  for  Amateur  Craftsmen,  Griffith.     Popular  Mechanics  Co., 

Chicago. 
Our  Trees,   How  to  Know  Them,   Emerson   &   Weed.     Lippincott   Co., 

Philadelphia. 


62 


BRACKET  SHELF 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESI6H 


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63 

BRACKET  SHELF  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BACK. 

Select  one  surface  for  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 2).  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  with  the 
working  face.  Mark  this  the  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 4).  Plane  one  end  exactly  square  with  the  working  face 
and  the  working  edge.  Mark  this  the  working  end  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  5).  Gauge  the  width  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6)  on 
both  surfaces ;  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Measure  and  cut  the  length. 

THE  TOP. 

Plane  one  surface  for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 2) .  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  square  with  the  working  face 
and  mark  it  the  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Plane 
one  end  exactly  square  with  both  the  working  face  and  the  work- 
ing edge  for  the  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) ;  measure 
and  cut  the  length.  Gauge  the  width  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6) 
on  both  surfaces  and  plane  to  the  gauge  line. 

THE  BRACKETS. 

In  the  working  drawing  a  very  simple  design  is  given  for  the 
brackets.  Suggestions  for  Original  Designs  will  give  you  a  number 
of  ideas  from  which  you  will  be  able  to  work  out  a  design  of  your 
own.  Make  a  drawing  of  your  design.  After  you  have  worked  out 
a  design  that  is  acceptable,  use  the  %"x5"xlO"  piece  to  make  the 
brackets.  Plane  one  surface  perfectly  smooth  and  mark  it  the  work- 
ing face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  4).  Plane  one  end  exactly  square  with  the  work- 
ing face  for  the  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Note: — 
This  board  will  be  sufficiently  long  to  make  both  brackets  by  re- 
versing the  pattern  and  using  the  material  with  economy.  Lay  out 
one  bracket ;  carefully  saw  out  this  bracket  with  the  turning,  coping 
or  compass  saw.  With  a  wood  file  and  sandpaper  make  the  edges 
perfectly  smooth.  Use  this  bracket  for  a  pattern  in  laying  out  the 
second  one.  Make  the  second  bracket  exactly  like  the  first. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  brads.  Be  sure  to  set  the 
brackets  perfectly  square  and  an  equal  distance  from  the  ends.  In 
driving  the  brads  be  very  careful  not  to  briuse  the  work  with  the 
hammer  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  21).  With  a  nail  set  drive  the 
heads  a  little  below  the  surface  so  the  holes  can  be  puttied. 


64 
FINISHING. 

When  the  work  is  all  assembled  give  it  a  final  cleaning  and 
smoothing  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16) 
and  finish  with  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  Be  sure 
that  all  of  the  corners  are  left  sharp  and  well  defined.  Bore  the 
holes  through  which  the  hanging  screws  are  to  be  placed.  These 
holes  should  be  16"  from  center  to  center  in  order  that  the  screws 
will  strike  the  studding  in  an  ordinary  plastered  wall. 

If  you  do  not  expect  your  shelf  to  support  a  very  heavy  load, 
perhaps  one  screw  at  each  end  will  be  sufficient.  Use  your  own 
judgment  in  this  matter. 

FINISHING. 

Give  the  bracket  shelf  a  ooat  of  stain  of  desirable  color  (Chap- 
ter IV.,  Paragraph  54).  Finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Para- 
graph 57)  or  with  wax  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  56). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SHELF  WITH  TOWEL  ROD. 

1.  By  shaping  the  brackets  so  they  will  be  a  little  wider  at 
the  lower  end,  and  boring  a  hole  about  half  or  two-thirds  through 
the  thickness  of  each  bracket,  a  rod  for  hanging  a  towel  may  be 
added.    This  rod  may  be  made  stationary,  or  one  of  the  holes  may 
be  slotted  so  it  can  be  lifted  out,  if  desired. 

SHELF  WITH  DRAWER. 

2.  By  designing  the  brackets  properly  a  neat,  shallow  drawer 
may  be  constructed  to  fit  between  them;  such  a  drawer  should  be 
carefully  made,  and  so  designed  as  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  bracket  shelf.    The  towel  rod  might  also  be  added ; 
for  a  lavatory  not  provided  with  a  shaving  cabinet,  such  a  shelf 
would  be  very  convenient. 


65 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COMMUNITY 
RESEARCH 

DID  you  ever  think  how  much  valuable  information  you  may 
gather  from  the  things  which  lie  all  about  you  ?  The  people 
of  your  neighborhood  are  daily  doing  hundreds  of  things 
which  you  may  sometime  be  called  upon  to  do.  You  should  there- 
fore be  interested  in  these  activities  and  store  up  all  the  knowl- 
edge and  experience  you  can. 

There  are  farmers  who,  for  a  great  many  years,  have  been 
dealing  with  the  problems  of  raising  crops  and  farm  animals  and 
who,  by  this  experience  and  hard  work,  have  learned  a  great  many 
things  which  they  would  be  glad  to  tell  you.  These  things  would 
not  only  be  as  interesting  as  any  of  the  stories  studied  in  school, 
but  they  would  possibly  be  quite  valuable  later  on  in  helping  you 
to  make  a  living. 

The  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  masons,  painters  and  other  me- 
chanics have  gathered  a  great  store  of  knowledge  and  acquired 
considerable  skill  by  spending  many  years  in  careful  practice  at 
their  trades.  While  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  give  you 
any  portion  of  their  skill,  because  this  can  be  obtained  only  by 
actual  practice,  yet  they  can  tell  you  many  things  which  will  be 
worth  while  for  you  to  know. 

Throughout  your  life  you  will  be  compelled  to  use  a  great 
many  different  kinds  of  equipment  in  the  way  of  tools,  imple- 
ments, furniture,  and  even  houses,  barns  and  bridges,  so  the  more 
you  can  know  about  the  materials  of  which  such  things  are  made, 
how  they  are  produced  and  their  care  and  use,  the  more  intelli- 
gently will  you  be  able  to  deal  with  them. 

These  suggestions  for  research  work  are  to  guide  you  in  find- 
ing out  by  observation  and  inquiry  some  of  the  practical  things 
which  every  boy  should  know.  It  is  particularly  important  that 
you  should  learn  how  to  approach  men  in  a  genteel  and  polite 
manner  and  learn  to  talk  with  them  intelligently  about  different 
lines  of  work.  Almost  any  intelligent  and  right  thinking  man  is 
not  only  willing,  but  glad  to  offer  advice  and  information  to  a  boy 
who  is  earnestly  trying  to  learn.  Of  course  nobody  likes  a  meddler 
nor  one  who  asks  foolish  questions  out  of  idle  curiosity  or  impu- 
dence. Whenever  you  are  visiting  a  man's  place  of  business  to 
gather  information,  remember  that  he  is  doing  you  a  favor  and 
that  you  should  not  fail  to  appreciate  it  and  to  thank  him  for  it. 
One  of  the  best  ways  to  get  courteous  treatment  is  to  be  thoroughly 
a  gentleman  yourself. 

3-Voc. 


66 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  hardwood  forest  trees  (those  that 
shed  their  leaves  each  year)   that  you  can  find  in  your  commu- 
nity.    Perhaps  your  father  or  some  man  whom  you  know  in  the 
neighborhood,  who  is  familiar  with  the  different  kinds  of  trees, 
will  be  willing  to  go  with  you  on  a  tree-examining  excursion. 
When  a  tree  has  once  been  named  and  pointed  out  to  you,  study 
it  very  carefully  so  you  will  be  able  to  recognize  trees  of  its  kind 
afterward.     Notice  the  size  of  the  tree,  the  general  shape  of  the 
trunk  and  the  branches,  the  nature  of  the  bark,  the  color  and 
exact  shape  of  the  leaves,  and  any  flowers,  fruit  or  nuts  which 
it  may  bear.     You  cannot  hope  to  remember  the  different  kinds 
of  trees  unless  you  study  their  characteristic  features. 

2.  On  your  tree  excursion  did  you  find  any  damaged,  un- 
healthy or  otherwise  disfigured  trees?     What  seemed  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  improper  condition  of  the  tree?    The  matter  of  car- 
ing for  trees  and  of  doctoring  them  has  become  quite  a  science; 
you  will  find  it  very  interesting  to  see  how  the  tree  surgeon  cuts 
out  the  rotten  portions  and  fills  the  cavity  with  cement,  very 
much  as  a  dentist  treats  a  tooth.     Perhaps  you  can  find  where 
some  work  of  this  kind  is  going  on  or  has  been  done  in  your  com- 
munity.    It  is  not  a  very  difficult  task,  and  by  carefully  studying 
the  references  given  in  this  text  you  might  be  able  to  undertake 
some  simple  work  of  this  kind  with  the  help  of  your  father  or 
teacher.     Make  a  list  of  all  the  influences  which  damage  shade 
trees  and  suggest  whatever  remedies  you  can  find  for  these  diffi- 
culties. 

3.  Do  you  know  of  any  one  near  your  school  who  has  a  loom 
for  weaving  carpets  or  rugs?    If  you  do,  visit  the  place  and  find 
out  all  you  can  about    weaving.      Notice    particularly    how    the 
stripes  and  the  figures  are  woven.    Do  you  know  of  anything  pro- 
duced in  your  locality  which  is  used  in  the  making  of  any  kind  of 
cloth?    Some  communities  furnish  a  great  deal  of  material  from 
which  the  clothing  of  the  world  is  made;  other  communities  pro- 
duce principally  food  materials.     You  will  find  it  interesting  to 
list  and  classify  the  products  of  your  community.     Possibly  there 
are  some  articles  manufactured  in  your  city  which  are  neither 
for  food  nor  clothing,  but  which  serve  as  equipment  in  aiding  in 
the  production  of  both.     A  wagon  factory,  for  illustration,  pro- 
duces neither  food  nor  clothing,  but  its  wagons  are  very  important 
in  handling  material  for  each. 

4.  Visit  a  number  of  farmers  and  ask  them  to  explain  to 
you  how  they  select  their  seed  corn.     You  will  probably  find  that 
a  large  majority  of  them  simply  go  to  the  crib  and  pick  out  the 


67 

ears  which  they  consider  the  best.  Can  they  in  this  way  know 
much  about  the  mother  plants  which  produced  the  chosen  ears? 
From  the  references  given,  of  what  value  is  the  knowledge  of  the 
mother  plant?  By  careful  inquiry  from  a  number  of  farmers, 
find  the  average  yield  of  corn  per  acre  in  your  neighborhood.  If 
the  average  acre  yield  throughout  the  United  States  last  year 
was  twenty-six  bushels,  was  your  community  above  or  below  the 
average?  The  farmers  will  no  doubt  be  interested  in  finding 
some  way  of  increasing  their  yield. 

5.  What  hand  tools  do  you  have  in  your  home?     Are  they 
kept  sharp  and  in  good  condition  for  use?     Visit  a  carpenter's 
shop  and  ask  the  carpenter  to  let  you  examine  his  stock  of  tools ; 
talk  to  him  about  the  care  and  use  of  tools,  and  see  whether  you 
think  that  your  tools,  in  their  present  condition,  would  be  satis- 
factory for  a  man  who  is  working  at  the  carpenter's  trade.    What 
have  you  learned  from  this  visit  which  you  think  is  worth  while? 

6.  Did  you  ever  see  a  broom    being    made?      While    most 
brooms  are  now  made  by  machinery,  yet  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  a  broom  maker  who  does  his  work  largely  by  hand.    Perhaps 
you  will  have  a  chance  to  visit  such  a  shop.    If  you  do,  find  out 
all  you  can  about  "broom  straw."    Is  there  any  broom  corn  raised 
in  your  neighborhood?     If  not,  find  the  reason;  would  it  be  a 
profitable  crop  in  your  locality? 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  a  Working  Face,  a  Working  Edge,  a 
Working  End? 

2.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Marking  Gauge?    How  should 
it  be  used?    In  what  other  ways  can  gauging  be  done? 

3.  How  can  you  tell  whether  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  material 
is  perfectly  straight? 

4.  In  what  order  would  you  give  the  dimensions  of  a  piece  of 
lumber? 

5.  What  tools  do  you  use  in  laying  out  work?     Name  as 
many  as  you  can. 

6.  Name  all  the  cutting  tools  which  you  have  used  thus  far. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  assembling   a    piece   of   work?      How 
many  different  means  of  assembling  have  you  used? 

8.  What  is  the  purpose  of  staining  a  piece  of  work?    What 
is  the  purpose  of  shellac  ?    Why  is  paint  preferable  on  work  which 
is  exposed  to  the  weather? 


68 

INTRODUCTION  TO  SECTION  II 

BY  the  time  the  student  has  reached  this  section  he  should  be 
able  to  understand  the  three  regular  views  of  the  working 
drawing.     The  purpose  of  this  section  is  to  review  and  de- 
velop  the   principles   and  processes   set  forth   under   Section   I. 
There  will  also  be  found  the  introduction  of  some  processes  which 
have  not  been  previously  set  forth.    The  use  of  dowels  in  gluing 
up  work  is  introduced  and  should  be  carefully  impressed  because 
of  its  common  application.     This  work  will  make  a  very  severe 
test  of  the  pupils'  ability  in  planing  edges  perfectly  straight  and 
square. 

This  section  also  offers  some  easy  exercises  which  can  be 
successfully  carried  out  by  less  skillful  students.  For  the  more 
adept  students  there  will  be  found  certain  exercises  which,  while 
they  do  not  introduce  any  difficult  joints,  will  call  for  very  accu- 
rate thinking,  particularly  in  the  assembling  work.  This  will  be 
found  especially  true  in  the  flytrap  lesson. 

Students  should  not  feel  that  they  are  able  to  omit  the  refer- 
ences to  the  supplement.  These  references  should  be  continually 
studied  in  order  that  each  student  may  have  before  him  constant 
ideals  for  the  use  of  tools,  and  thus  avoid  forming  any  bad  habits. 
It  is  very  much  easier  to  form  correct  habits  at  the  start  than  it 
is  to  reform  them  after  the  incorrect  habits  have  been  established. 

If  the  students  have  not  been  required  to  do  tool-sharpening 
in  Section  I,  they  should  be  led  to  see  the  importance  of  this  work 
by  this  time.  They  should  be  required  to  turn  to  the  supplement 
and  study  the  methods  of  sharpening  chisels  and  planes.  Stu- 
dents must  learn  quite  early  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  good  work 
with  dull  tools. 

This  section  offers  an  opportunity  to  do  some  very  excellent 
work  in  finishing.  The  bread-cutting  board  is  especially  adapted 
to  this  purpose,  and  it  will  be  found  very  interesting  and  attract- 
ive, as  well  as  valuable  from  the  practical  standpoint,  to  have  the 
students  work  out  a  fine  shellac  finish  on  this  piece  of  work. 

If  the  students  have  not  been  enthusiastic  about  the  prepara- 
tion of  their  own  drawings,  by  making  the  drawing  board  as  pre- 
sented in  the  instructions,  an  interest  may  be  aroused.  The  mak- 
ing of  a  T-square  is  not  presented  in  the  regular  lesson,  however ; 
it  can  be  readily  made  from  the  illustrations  given  with  the  draw- 
ing board  and  it  will  be  found  very  interesting,  particularly  for 
the  more  skillful  students. 


69 


BREAD  OR  MEAT 
BOARD 

MATERIALS. 

Black  Walnut  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  44) 

or  Gum  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  37) 

or   any    dark   wood. 

2  pcs.  l"x234"xl4l/2"  S  2  S 

Oak     (Chap.    III.,    Par.    29)     or 

Maple    (Chap.  III.,  Par.  41) 

or  any  light-colored  wood. 

lpc:i"x5"xl4i/2"  S2S 
1  pc.  14  "x  10"  dowel  rod. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  cutting  of  bread  or  meat,  which  must  take  place  in  every 
home,  calls  for  some  sort  of  cutting  board.  The  size  and  shape  of 
the  board  are  not  important  features,  but  there  are  a  few  points 
which  should  be  carefully  observed.  The  boards  should  be  made  of 
some  kind  of  hard  wood,  preferably  maple  or  birch,  but  there  are 
a  number  of  other  kinds  of  wood  that  will  be  very  satisfactory. 
Wood  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  free  from  any  natural  odor 
and  as  close-grained  as  possible  so  as  to  be  non-absorbent.  The 
board  should  have  no  cracks  or  decoration  which  would  make  it 
hard  to  keep  clean.  A  board  made  of  several  pieces  glued  together 
is  most  satisfactory  because  it  is  less  likely  to  warp. 


References : 


Maple,  Maple  Sugar  and  Syrup,  U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  252. 
Familiar  Trees,  Mathews.    Appleton  Pub.  Co.,  New  York. 
Timber  and  Timber  Trees,  Laslett.    Macmillan  Co. 
Wood  Finishing,  Staining,  Varnishing  and  Polishing,  Hasluck. 


70 


BREAD  OR  MEAT  CUTTING  BOARD 


V 

f 


<n 


•s 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGN 


•3 

o 

c. 

MO.  I 


No.2  No.  3  No.4 

STEAK  Of?  FISH  PLANK 


71 

BREAD  OR  MEAT-CUTTING  BOARD 
SPECIFICATIONS 

This  board  is  to  be  made  by  gluing  together  the  three  boards, 
as  you  will  note  from  the  illustration  the  light-colored  piece  is  to 
be  used  in  the  middle  with  a  dark  piece  on  each  edge. 

THE  LIGHT-COLORED  PIECE. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  and  as  you  will  have  to 
resurface  it  after  it  is  glued  up,  it  is  not  necessary  to  plane  the 
surface  now.  Select  the  best  surface  and  mark  it  the  working  face 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Carefully  plane  one  edge  perfectly 
straight  and  square  with  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
4) .  With  the  marking  gauge  or  pencil  and  ruler  gauge  the  width  of 
the  board  (shown  in  the  drawing),  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  6 
or  7).  Carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
cut  the  length  of  this  board  at  this  time.  That  can  be  done  after 
the  work  is  assembled. 

THE  DARK-COLORED  PIECES. 

Plane  one  edge  of  each  of  the  dark  strips  perfectly  straight 
and  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Lay  the  boards  in  posi- 
tion on  your  bench  top,  and  press  them  closely  together  to  make 
sure  that  the  joints  will  fit  perfectly.  If  they  do  not  fit  perfectly, 
determine  what  the  difficulty  is,  and  with  a  sharp  plane,  set  to 
take  a  very  thin  shaving,  plane  them  until  they  will  make  a  very 
tight  joint.  These  boards  are  to  be  joined  with  dowels,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  drawing.  Locate  the  points  where  the  dowels  are 
to  be  and  lay  out  for  them  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  18)  ;  careful- 
ly bore  for  the  dowel  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  13).  Cut  the 
dowels  the  right  length  (make  sure  they  are  not  too  long  or  the 
work  will  not  assemble  properly). 

ASSEMBLING  THE  WORK. 

Glue  the  dowels  in  one  edge  of  the  center  piece.  Spread  an 
even  coating  of  glue  on  the  edges  which  are  to  be  joined.  Care- 
fully drive  one  dark  piece  down  on  the  dowels.  In  like  manner 
dowel  the  other  dark-colored  piece  on  the  other  edge.  Place  the 
material  in  a  clamp,  and  tighten  it  securely ;  leave  it  until  the  glue 
has  had  time  to  dry  (at  least  twelve  hours). 


72 

SURFACING  THE  BOARDS. 

Both  surfaces  of  the  board  are  to  be  planed  perfectly  smooth 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  the  board  to  the  desired  width 
(make  sure  that  the  dark-colored  pieces  are  exactly  the  same 
width).  Square  the  boards  the  desired  length.  Lay  out  and  cut 
the  desired  shape  of  the  board.  With  the  lead  pencil  and  finger 
gauge  entirely  around  the  board  on  both  surfaces  for  the  chamfer 
or  the  round  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8).  Carefully  plane  to  the 
gauge  line,  using  the  block  plane  for  the  end  grain  work  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  19).  When  the  desired  shape  is  completed,  fin- 
ish the  surface  of  the  board  with  a  steel  scraper  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  16).  Do  the  final  smoothing  of  the  surface  with  very 
fine  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  The  round  edges 
may  be  sandpapered  as  you  would  sandpaper  a  cylinder  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  15).  Bore  the  hanging  hole  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 9) . 

FINISHING. 

The  board  should  be  given  the  desired  finish  with  shellac 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57). 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

DOUGH  BOARD. 

1.  This  plan  of  constructing  a  wide  board  by  joining  several 
narrow  ones  may  be  used  in  making  a  mixing  board  for  dough. 
The  boards  should  be  perfectly  fitted  so  there  will  be  no  cracks; 
the  size  of  the  board  is  immaterial,  however   it   should   be   large 
enough  for  practical  service,  perhaps  as  much  as  16"xl8"  or  18"x20". 
It    should    have    cleats    on    each    end    to    prevent    warping;    it 
would  be  well  to  have  them  fastened  with  a  tongue  and  groove 
joint.    Basswood,  poplar  or  maple  would  be  suitable  wood. 

CHOPPING  BOARD. 

2.  A  heavy,  smooth  board  is  often  needed  for  chopping  meats 
or  vegetables.     This  board  should  be  made  of  some  kind  of  hard 
wood,  such  as  oak  or  maple.    It  should  be  joined  perfectly,  with- 
out rough  places  or  indentations  of  any  sort.      A    large    staple 
might  be  driven  in  the  face  side  near  one  edge,  and  left  extending 
1/2"  or  %,";  by  placing  the  point  of  a  long  kitchen  knife  in  this 
staple  the  knife  could  be  held  steady  while  the  chopping  was  be- 
ing rapidly  and  safely  done. 


73 

CAMP  STOOL 

MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48) 
or  any  soft  wood. 

4  pcs.  %"x  li/2"x22i/2"  S  2  S  Legs. 

2  pcs.  %"x  li/2"xl3i/2"  S  2  S  Top 

strips. 

3  pcs.  y2rxl2"  dowel  rod. 

1  pc.  canvas  for  seat  15"xl6". 
11/2  dozen  8-oz.  carpet  tacks. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  value  of  a  camp  stool  can  be  fully  realized  only  at  crowded 
gatherings,  picnics  or  camping  parties,  and  yet  occasions  often 
arise  in  almost  any  home  where  a  camp  stool  is  convenient,  particu- 
larly at  lawn  or  porch  parties.  In  designing  a  camp  stool  you  should 
keep  in  mind  the  fact  it  is  to  be  used  for  a  seat  and  will  likely  have 
pretty  rough  usage;  it  should  therefore  be  strong  enough  to  stand 
the  strain. 

The  plan  given  in  this  lesson  is  the  standard  way  of  making  a 
simple  camp  stool.  The  method  given  in  the  suggestions  allows  the 
stool  to  close  perfectly  flat,  but  in  order  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  to 
leave  out  one  of  the  cross  rods  between  the  legs. 


References: 


Harper's  Camping  and  Scouting.    Harper  &  Bros.,  Pub.,  New  York. 
The  Outdoor  Handy  Book,  D.  C.  Beard.    Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 
The  Field  and  Forest  Handy  Book,  D.  C.  Beard.    Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 
Boat  Building  for  Amateurs,  Adrian  Neison.    Frederick  Drake  Pub.  Co., 

Chicago. 

Timber,  Bulletin  No.  .10  of  U.  S.  Forestry  Service. 

Book  of  Woodcraft,  Ernest  Thompson  Seton.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 
Harper's  Outdoor  Book  for  Boys.    Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York. 


74 


CAMP  STOOL 


TT r-r— H- 

U l-i- 


PETJIL  OF  LEG  JOltIT 
H 13" 


HF 


SUGGESTIONS  fOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGN 


CLOSIV  VIEW 


75 

CAMP  STOOL  SPECIFICATIONS 

LEGS. 

If  you  are  cutting  this  material  from  stock,  saw  out  a  piece  a 
little  longer  than  the  length  of  the  leg  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Select  the  best  side  and  mark  it  the  working  face.  If  it  is  S  2  S 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  surface  it  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2). 
Plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4). 
With  the  marking  gauge,  gauge  the  width  of  the  leg  on  both  sur- 
faces of  this  board  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6).  Carefully  rip 
just  outside  the  gauge  line  and  plane  to  the  gauge  line  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4) .  Again  prepare  a  working  edge  on  the  stock  material, 
and  in  like  manner  lay  out  and  make  the  four  legs. 

CROSS  PIECES  AND  JOINTS. 

In  similar  manner  rip  out  and  plane  to  dimensions  the  two  top 
cross  pieces.  The  legs  are  to  be  joined  to  the  cross  piece  with  a 
round  tenon  construction  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  69) .  This  tenon 
should  be  made  1/2"*  %"  °r  even  %"  diameter.  You  may  select  a 
size  which  is  the  most  convenient  for  the  size  of  bit  with  which 
you  expect  to  bore  the  hole.  Locate  the  points  where  the  holes 
are  to  be  bored  and  bore  the  holes  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9). 
Lay  out  and  shape  the  round  tenons  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  69). 

Cut  the  legs  the  exact  length  as  given  in  th'e  drawing.  Lay 
out  and  bore  for  the  cross  dowel  rods  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9). 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  with  glue.  If  desired  brads  may  be  driven  through 
the  leg  in  the  stationary  joints  of  the  dowels,  also  into  the  top 
pieces.  Be  careful  not  to  nail,  or  get  any  glue,  on  the  dowel  joints 
which  are  supposed  to  turn.  With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  16)  remove  all  pencil  or  tool  marks. 

FINISHING. 

If  you  desire  to  change  the  color  of  the  wood,  stain  the  de- 
sired color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54) ;  finish  with  one  or  two 
coats  of  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57). 

THE  TOP. 

The  top  is  to  be  made  of  canvas.  This  is  to  be  tacked  on  the 
outside  of  the  top  rail.  The  canvas  should  be  turned  under  about 


76 

W  or  %,"  on  each  side  of  the  seat.  This  will  give  it  strength.  It 
should  also  be  turned  under  slightly  where  it  is  tacked  to  prevent 
raveling  and  give  it  a  neat  appearance.  Be  careful  to  get  it  equal- 
ly tight  on  each  edge. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

FOLDING  CHAIR. 

1.  A  folding  camp  or  porch  chair  can  be  made  on  almost  ex- 
actly the  same  principles  as  the  camp  stool.    The  leg  pieces  should 
be  considerably  longer,  with  one  pair  extending  high  enough  to 
form  the  back;  from  this  back  braces  should  run  down  to  the 
rear  legs,  and  be  joined  with  a  long  dowel  which  would  rest  in 
notches  in  the  legs,  thus  providing  means  of  adjusting  the  angle 
of  the  chair.    The  canvas  would  extend  from  the  top  round  to  the 
front  one,  forming  both  seat  and  back.     Arms  may  be  provided 
if  desired. 

FOLDING  COT. 

2.  A  folding  cot,  particularly  adapted  to  outdoor  sleeping  or 
camping  trips,  may  easily  be  made  by  using  exactly  the  plan  of 
the  camp  stool.    The  material  should  be  heavier  and  the  legs  con- 
siderably longer;  the  cross  rails  between  the  legs  would  need  to  be 
about  6  feet  long-  to  provide  sufficient  length  to  the  cot. 

SAW  BUCK. 

3.  In  localities  where  wood  is  no  longer    used   for   fuel    the 
saw  buck  has  gone  out  of  existence,  but  in  some  places  there  is 
enough  wood  to  be  sawed  by  hand  to  make  it  still  worth  while.    It 
consists  of  a  pair  of  strong  legs  (each  made  "X"  shape,  like  the 
camp  stool)  fastened  together  at  a  distance  of  about  2*/2  or  3  feet 
with  a  heavy  stretcher.    This  stretcher  may  consist  of  one  piece 
rounded  on  the  ends  to  enter  holes  in  the  legs,  or  it  may  be  made 
of  strips  nailed  on  each  side  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  legs.    The 
limbs,  or  pieces  of  wood  to  be  sawed,  are  placed  in  the  saw  buck 
and,  because  of  its  "V"  shape,  are  held  perfectly  solid  at  a  con- 
venient height  to  be  sawed.    Sometimes  a  temporary  buck  is  made 
by  driving  stakes  in  the  ground  in  an  "X"  shape  over  a  small  log, 
which  thus  braces  them. 


77 


BOOK  RACK 

MATERIALS. 

Chestnut   (Chap.  III.,  Par. 

35)  or  any  hard  wood. 

1  pc.  5/8"x5^"x28"   Bottom 
and  ends.     S  2  S. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

A  small  bookrack  for  use  on  a  library  or  study  table  is  very 
important  in  order  to  keep  the  books  in  shape  for  ready  use.  The 
length  of  the  bookrack  depends  upon  the  number  of  books  which 
it  is  intended  to  hold.  The  bookrack  should  be  made  of  some 
kind  of  cabinet  wood  such  as  oak,  walnut,  cherry,  mahogany  or 
gum.  It  should  be  given  a  finish  which  will  correspond  with  the 
finish  of  the  furniture  with  which  it  is  to  be  used.  Innumerable 
designs  have  been  worked  out  for  bookracks,  but  you  should  try 
to  put  as  much  originality  as  you  can  in  your  piece  of  work.  It  is 
better  to  undertake  a  simple  design  and  do  it  well  than  to  attempt 
a  difficult  style  and  leave  it  showing  marks  of  carelessness  and 
inexperience. 


References : 


Handwork  in  Wood,  Wm.  Noyes.    Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 
Essentials  of  Woodworking,  Griffith.    Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 
Instructions  for  Amateur  Bookbinding.     Craft  Materials  Guild,  119  La- 

Salle  St.,  Chicago. 

Harper's  Indoor  Book  for  Boys.    Harper  &  Brothers,  New  York. 
Seasoning  of  Timber,  Bulletin  No.  41,  N.  Y.,  1902. 


78 


F 


t: 


~r 


(O'QO      _J 


41 


Afc/ 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGN 


#0.2  /yo.3 

VARIOUS  METHODS  Or  FASTEN  ING  EMPS 


No.  4- 


79 

BOOK  RACK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BASE. 

The  entire  material  for  the  book  rack  may  be  cut  from  one 
piece  of  stock,  %"x51/4"x28".  Select  the  best  side  of  the  material 
and  plane  it  perfectly  smooth  for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4).  Prepare  a  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
5) ;  with  the  marking  gauge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6)  or  with 
ruler  and  pencil  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  7)  gauge  the  width  of 
the  base  on  both  surfaces. 

Since  the  ends  and  base  are  to  be  exactly  the  same  width,  you 
may  gauge  the  full  length  of  the  piece  of  material ;  carefully  plane 
to  these  gauge  lines.  Measure  the  length  for  the  ends ;  with  the  try- 
square,  square  across  the  working  face,  cutting  off  pieces  the  right 
length  for  the  ends  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5). 

THE  ENDS. 

If  you  do  not  expect  to  use  the  design  given  in  the  working 
drawing,  make  a  drawing  of  your  own.  This  drawing  should  first 
be  made  on  paper.  Lay  out  and  shape  one  of  the  ends;  use  it  for 
a  pattern  in  laying  out  the  other ;  make  the  two  exactly  alike. 

MORTISING. 

A  wide  mortise  is  to  be  cut  in  each  end  piece  to  receive  the 
tenon  on  the  end  of  the  base  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  66).  (Other 
methods  of  joining  the  ends  and  base  are  shown  in  the  sugges- 
tions. Use  one  of  these  methods  if  you  desire.) 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  with  glue  and,  if  it  seems  necessary,  two  or  three 
small  brads  may  be  driven  through  each  end  piece  into  the  tenons 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  21).  This,  however,  will  not  be  required 
if  the  joints  fit  perfectly. 

FINISHING. 

All  broad  surfaces  should  be  carefully  gone  over  with  the 
steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16) .  All  surfaces  should  be 
carefully  sandpapered.  Use  great  precaution  not  to  round  any  of 
the  sharp  corners  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  Stain  the  book 


80 


rack  the  desired  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54).  If  desirable 
the  book  rack  may  be  given  a  coat  of  filler  (Chapter  IV.,  Para- 
graph 55).  It  may  be  finished  with  a  wax  polish  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  56)  or  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

POST  CARD  RACK. 

1.  In  using  this  plan  for  making  a  post  card  rack  the  mate- 
rial should  be  somewhat  thinner,  perhaps  %"  or  even  a  little  less. 
One  of  the  fine  cabinet  woods  should  be  used,    such    as    walnut, 
cherry  or  mahogany.    The  base  should  be  very  much  shorter  than 
in  a  book  rack;  4  or  5  inches  would  probably  be  long  enough  for 
an  average-sized  card  rack. 

FOLDING  BOOK  RACK. 

2.  A  very  convenient  folding  book  rack  may  be  made  by  con- 
structing a  rectangular  frame  of  the  desired  size  for  the  base; 
this  frame  may  be  joined  at  the  corners  with  the  cross-lap  joint; 
the  end  pieces  should  be  made  just  wide  enough  to  go  inside  the 
frame,  and  should  be  joined  to  it  with  a  small  piece  of  dowel  rod,  or 
a  round  head  screw  on  each  side.     If  these  screws  are  properly 
placed  the  ends,  when  folded,  will  lie  flat  inside  the  rectangular 
frame,  and  when  open  will  stand  perpendicular,  resting  against 
the  cross  rails  of  the  base  frame. 


81 


DRAWING  BOARD 


MATERIALS. 
Basswood  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  31)  or  White  Pine  (Par.  48). 


3  pcs.  7/8"x6"x26"  S  2  S  Top. 
1  pc.  14"  dowel  12"  long. 


2  pcs.  7/8"xli/2"xl6"  S  2  S  Cleats. 
10-1  i/i"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  subject  of  drawing  is  continually  growing  in  importance. 
When  we  think  that  before  any  piece  of  building  or  construction 
work  can  be  undertaken  it  must  first  be  drawn  in  perfect  detail, 
then  we  begin  to  realize  that  this  is  a  subject  with  which  every- 
body should  be  somewhat  familiar. 

Every  boy  should  be  able  to  understand  and  to  make  simple 
working  drawings.  In  order  to  make  these  drawings  a  drawing 
board  is  necessary. 

The  size  of  a  drawing  board  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  draw- 
ings one  intends  to  make;  about  16  or  18  inches  wide  by  22  or  24 
inches  long  is  a  very  convenient  size  for  ordinary  work. 


References : 


Mechanical   Drawing  for   Schools,   Book   1.     Atkinson,   Mentzer  &   Co. 

Mechanical   Drawing  for   Schools,   Book  2.     Atkinson,   Mentzer  &   Co. 

Problems  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  C.  A.  Bennett.  Manual  Arts  Press, 
Peoria,  111. 

Practical  Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught,  Chas.  Westinghouse.  Fred- 
erick Drake  Co.,  Chicago. 

Architectural  Drawing,  Edminster.     David  Williams  Co.,  New  York. 

Practical  Lessons  in  Architectural  Drawing,  Tuthill.  David  Williams 
Co.,  New  York. 

Junior  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  Thome. 

Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing,  Titsworth. 

Elementary  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  Chase. 

A  Practical  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing,  Willard.  Pop.  Mech.  Co.,  Chi- 
cago. 


82 


DRAWING  BOARD 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGH 


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No.1  tio.a  Ho.3 

SCREW  HOLES  SLOTTED       BATTENS  DOVETAILED         T-SQUARE 


83 

DRAWING  BOARD  SPECIFICATIONS 

The  drawing  board  is  to  be  made  by  gluing  together  three 
pieces  (more  pieces  may  be  used  if  the  material  is  narrow).  As 
this  board  must  be  surfaced  after  it  is  completed,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  plane  a  working  face.  Select  the  best  side  and  mark  it 
the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2) .  Plane  the  best  edge 
of  the  first  board  perfectly  square  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4).  Plane  one  edge  of  the  second  board  in  like  manner 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Gauge  the  width  on  both  faces  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraphs  6  or  7).  Plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Plane  the  best 
edge  of  the  third  board  in  like  manner,  then  lay  all  of  the  boards  in 
position  on  your  bench  top  and  examine  the  joints  to  see  that  they 
will  fit  perfectly. 

THE  DOWELS. 

By  studying  the  drawing  you  will  notice  that  the  boards  should 
be  so  assembled  that  the  grain  is  reversed.  Carefully  lay  out  the 
dowels  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  18) ;  bore  for  the  dowels  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  13).  Cut  the  dowels  the  required  length.  Be  sure 
not  to  have  them  too  long,  as  they  will  hinder  the  assembling.  Glue 
the  dowels  into  one  board,  then  spread  a  thin  coating  of  glue  on  the 
edges  which  are  to  come  into  contact,  being  sure  that  the  boards 
are  assembled  with  their  face  side  up.  Make  both  dowel  joints  in 
like  manner  and  clamp  securely. 

THE  BATTENS. 

Select  the  best  side  for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 2).  Plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 4).  With  a  marking  gauge,  gauge  the  width  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  6)  and  carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Square  one 
end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) ;  lay  out  and  cut  them  the  proper 
length.  Smooth  these  ends  with  the  block  plane  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  5).  Lay  out  for  the  chamfer  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
8).  Carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  The  battens  should  be 
fastened  on  with  screws,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing,  or,  if  pre- 
ferred, by  the  dove-tail  method,  indicated  in  No.  2  of  the  sugges- 
tions. If  fastened  on  with  screws,  it  is  well  to  have  the  holes 
slotted  slightly  so,  if  the  board  shrinks  or  expands,  the  screws  may 
slip  in  the  slots  and  thus  not  bend  the  board  out  of  shape. 

ASSEMBLING. 
» 

When  the  glue  is  dry  carefully  plane  both  surfaces  of  the 
drawing  board  and  fasten  the  battens  to  the  under  side.  Care- 


84 

fully  plane  and  test  the  working  surface  of  the  drawing  board 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight 
and  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  a  large  steel  square 
square  each  end  and  finish  with  the  block  plane  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  5).  The  surface  of  the  drawing  board  should  be  care- 
fully finished  with  a  steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16) 
and  smoothed  with  fine  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17). 
It  should  be  finished  with  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  57). 

T-SQUARE. 

If  you  desire  to  make  a  T-square,  you  may  easily  do  so  by  fol- 
lowing the  suggestions  given  in  the  drawing.  The  blades  should 
be  long  enough  to  reach  across  your  drawing  board  and  the  head 
should  be  10"  or  12"  long.  The  blade  should  be  about  %"  thick  and 
the  head  about  %".  The  blade  and  head  must  be  assembled  at  a 
perfect  right  angle,  or  the  T-square  will  be  worthless.  The  top  edge 
of  the  T-square  must  be  a  perfectly  straight  line. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

MOLDING  BOARD. 

1.  In  connection  with  work  in  clay  modeling  and  experiments 
with  concrete  a  molding  board  is  very  necessary;  such  a  board 
will  afford  a  smooth  working  surface  upon  which  to  mix  and  mold 
the  materials,  and  will  also  protect  the  desk  or  table  tops.     This 
board  can  be  made  any  size,  depending  upon  the  material  available 
and  the  projects  to  be  worked  out  upon  it.    It  should  be  about  1" 
thick,  free  from  cracks  and  provided  with  strong  battens  on  the 
under  side. 

PLASTERER'S  HAWK. 

2.  A  plasterer's  hawk  will  be  found  a  very  convenient  article 
of  equipment  in  conducting  experiments  with  cement  and  plaster- 
ing materials;  it  may  also  be  made  to  serve  a  practical  purpose 
about  the  home  or  farm.     White  pine  is  the  most  suitable  wood 
for  this  project.    The  board  should  be  made  about  12"  square  and 
need  not  be  more  than  1/2"  or  %"  thick ;  it  should  be  reinforced  by 
having    another   board,    somewhat    smaller    (perhaps     about     9" 
square),  fastened  to  its  bottom  side  with  the  grain  running  at 
right  angles    (this  will  add  strength  and  prevent  warping).     A 
cylindrical  handle  about  4"  or  5"  long  is  fastened  to  the  bottom 
side. 


85 

WINDMILL 

MATERIALS. 

Basswood  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  31)  or 

White  Pine  (Chap.  III., 

Par.  48). 

2  pcs.  %"xl34"x  9"  S  2  S  Fans. 
1  pc.  7/8  "X  7/8"x21"  S  2  S  Shaft 

and  upright. 
1  pc.   bright  tin  5"x7". 
2-13,4"  No.  10  R.  H.  blue  screws. 
6-1"  No.  17  brads. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  certain  countries  where  the  power  of  the  wind  is  used  in 
irrigating  and  in  doing  certain  lines  of  work  of  this  kind  the  wind- 
mill gets  considerable  study  and  attention.  Most  of  us  give  but  lit- 
tle thought  to  the  direction  or  power  of  the  wind,  except  when  we 
occasionally  see  it  turning  a  large  fan  on  a  wind  pump. 

This  windmill  which  you  are  to  make  serves  also  as  a  weather 
vane  and  will  thus  indicate  the  direction  as  well  as  the  force  of  the 
wind.  Men  who  are  studying  the  subject  of  flying  machines  have 
given  great  study  to  the  same  principles  by  which  you  are  to  con- 
struct this  windmill. 


The  following  references  are  worthy  of  careful  study : 


References: 


Land  of  Dikes  and  Windmills;  Cur  Little  Dutch  Cousins,  McManus.    L. 

C.  Page  &  Co. 
Windmills  in  a  Country  Below  the  Sea,  Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader. 

American  Book  Co. 

Harper's  Outdoor  Book  for  Boys.    Harper  &  Brothers,  Pub. 
Harper's  Machinery  Book  for  Boys.    Harper  &  Brothers,  Pub. 
Mechanical  Toys  Which  a  Boy  Can  Make,  Geo.  F.  Johnson.     Longmans, 

Green  &  Co. 

First  Book  of  Forestry.     Ginn  &  Co. 
History  of  Lumber  Industry.    U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  34. 


86 


WIND  MILL 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIBltiAL  DESIGN 


Wheel  of  Jin 


-7 


NO.I 


U      Ho.Z 


87 

WINDMILL  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  FANS. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  you  will  hot  need  to  plane 
the  surface.  Select  the  best  surface  and  mark  it  the  working 
face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge  for  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Prepare  a  working  end  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  5).  Measure  and  cut  the  length  of  the  fan,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  In  like  manner  prepare  the  other  fan.  Be 
sure  these  pieces  are  exactly  the  same  size. 

A  study  of  the  drawing  will  show  you  that  these  two  pieces 
are  to  be  put  together  with  a  cross-lap  joint,  crossing  exactly  at 
their  middle  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  62).  When  the  two  pieces 
have  been  perfectly  fitted,  lay  out  the  curves  for  the  fan  blades. 
This  may  be  done  with  the  compasses,  or  the  curves  may  be  drawn  • 
freehand.  With  the  lead  pencil  and  finger,  gauge  lines  on  the  edges 
of  each  fan  blade  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8).  Take  the  pieces 
apart,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  carefully  whittle  away  the  wood  to 
the  gauge  line,  forming  a  graceful  curve. 

ASSEMBLING  THE  FAN. 

When  the  fan  blades  are  completed,  fasten  the  cross-lap  joint 
with  small  brads.  These  brads  must  be  driven  near  the  corners 
of  the  joint  so  as  not  to  be  in  the  way  of  boring  the  hole  through 
the  center.  Locate  the  center  (where  the  blades  cross)  and  bore 
a  hole  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9)  large  enough  to  allow  the  screw 
to  turn  very  freely. 

NOTE: — When  the  windmill  gets  wet  the  wood  will  swell, 
and  unless  all  holes,  in  which  screws  are  to  turn,  have  been  bored 
apparently  larger  than  necessary  the  joints  will  not  turn. 

THE  SHAFT  AND  UPRIGHT. 

As  the  shaft  and  the  upright  are  to  be  the  same  size,  this 
piece  of  material  should  be  planed  the  proper  size  before  it 
is  cut  to  length  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3  and  4). 
You  will  notice  that  the  end  of  the  shaft  is  to  be  ripped 
to  receive  'the  tin  tail.  Gauge  for  the  ripping  on  both  sides  of  the 
shaft  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6).  Fasten  the  material  in  the  vise 
and  rip  in  the  same  manner  as  in  sawing  a  tenon  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  14) .  Locate  and  bore  the  hole  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
9)  for  the  screw  which  is  to  fasten  it  to  the  upright. 

THE  TIN  TAIL. 
With  lead  pencil  and  ruler,  lay  out  the  shape  of  the  tail.    The 


88 

tin  may  be  cut  with  tinner's  snips;  if  you  do  not  have  them,  an 
old  pair  of  shears  will  do  very  well.  Fasten  the  tail  in  position  by 
driving  a  few  brads  through  the  shaft  and  the  tin. 

ASSEMBLING. 
These  parts  are  to  be  assembled  with  screws. 

FINISHING. 

As  this  article  is  to  be  used  out  of  doors,  a  coat  of  paint  would 
be  a  good  protection  for  it  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52).  If  de- 
sirable you  may  give  the  woodwork  a  coat  of  stain  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  54). 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

HEAT  WHEEL. 

1.  A  paper  heat  wheel  may  be  made  on  the  same  plan  as 
shown  in  suggestion  No.  2.     Cut  a  perfect  square  of  any  kind  of 
stiff,  tough  paper  (not  cardboard),  mark  the  diagonals  and  cut  on 
these  lines  from  each  corner  toward  the  center;  turn  in  the  alter- 
nate corners,  causing  the  wheel  to  take  the  shape  shown  in  sug- 
gestion No.  2.     Thrust  a  pin  through  each  of  these  corners  and 
the  exact  center  of  the  wheel.    Remove  the  pin  and  put  it  through 
these  same  holes  from  the  other  side;  that  is,  so  the  head  of  the 
pin  will  be  on  the  plane  smooth  side  of  the  wheel;  thrust  the  pin 
into  the  end  of  a  small,  softwood  stick;  the  wheel  can  be  made  to 
stand  in  position  -by  fastening  the  opposite  end  of  the  stick  in  a 
hot  air  register ;  the  passing  of  the  hot  air  will  turn  the  wheel. 

CIRCULAR  TIN  WHEEL. 

2.  An  easily  constructed  and  very  successful  wind  wheel  may 
be  made  of  a  circular  piece  of  tin.     Almost  any  diameter  will  do, 
but  about  six  or  eight  inches  will  be  most  convenient.    Cut  out  a 
perfect  circle  of  tin,  find  the  center,  and  with  the  compasses  lay 
out  a  small  circle  (about  an  inch  and  one-half  in  diameter) ;  on 
the  outside  circumference  step  off  equal  spaces  about  one  and  one- 
half  inches;  from  these  points  cut  straight  lines  toward  the  cen- 
ter just  to  the  inside  circle;  punch  a  smooth  hole  in  the  center; 
fasten  to  the  end  of  a  stick  with  a  screw  or  a  nail;  twist  each  of 
the  blades  of  the  wheel  so  they  will  all  stand  at  the  same  angle. 
It  may  require  a  little  experimenting  and  adjusting  to  get  them 
set  so  the  wheel  will  turn  satisfactorily. 


89 

CHILD'S  SWING 

MATERIALS. 
Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48). 

2  pcs.    %"x6"xl2"     S2S  Bottom. 
2  pcs.  %"xlV2"xl2"    S  2  S    Bottom 

battens. 

7  pcs.  7/8"xli/8"xl2"  S  2  S  Rails. 
1  pc.    1/2"  dowel  30"  long. 
8-1 V2"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 
20  ft.  %"  cotton  rope  (sash  cord) . 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

This  lesson  presents  an  easy  but  attractive  and  substantial 
way  of  making  a  swing  which  can  be  put  up  in  the  house  or  on  the 
porch. 

The  seat  may  be  upholstered  with  denim,  canvas  or  imitation 
leather  if  the  swing  is  to  be  used  entirely  indoors ;  the  upholstering 
would  not  be  desirable  for  outdoor  use.  If  intended  for  outside 
use  the  seat  should  be  reinforced  with  cleats,  as  indicated  in  the 
suggestions ;  the  wood  parts  should  also  be  well  painted  to  protect 
them  from  the  weather. 

By  using  heavier  material  and  making  all  the  parts  propor- 
tionately larger,  and  substituting  small  chain  for  the  rope,  a  very 
excellent  playground  swing  may  be  had. 


References : 


Rope.     Upson  Walton  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Minnesota  Bulletin  No.  136,  Rope  and  Its  Uses  on  the  Farm. 

Minnesota  Bulletin  No.  33,  Some  Knots  and  Splices. 

Flax,  Hemp  and  Other  Fiber  Plants — Sixty  Lessons  in  Agriculture. 
American  Book  Co. 

Fiber  Plants,  the  Book  of  Useful  Plants,  Rogers.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Cotton,  Flax  and  Hemp;  How  the  World  Is  Clothed,  Carpenter.  Ameri- 
can Book  Co. 

Playgrounds  and  Parks;  Health  in  Home  and  Town,  Brown.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co. 

Public  Playgrounds,  Day  Allen  Willie,  St.  Nicholas  Magazine,  May,  1909. 

The  School  Playground,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  1912,  No.  16. 

Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds,  U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  134. 


90 


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CHILD'S  SWING  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BOTTOM. 

The  material  for  the  bottom  will  probably  be  furnished  in  two 
pieces;  if  so,  they  should  be  joined  with  the  dowel  joint  (Chapter 
V.,  Paragraph  72) .  Select  the  best  surface  of  one  board  and  mark 
it  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  NOTE:— It  will 
not  be  necessary  to  plane  it  now,  for  it  will  have  to  be  replaned 
after  the  two  pieces  are  glued  together.  Prepare  a  working  edge 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  In  like  manner  prepare  the  other 
bottom  piece.  Lay  out  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  18)  and  bore 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  13)  for  the  dowels.  Make  the  glue  joint 
and  clamp  securely.  Leave  the  work  clamped  while  you  proceed 
with  the  other  parts. 

THE  SIDE  AND  BACK  STRIPS. 

You  will  probably  have  to  rip  these  strips  from  a  wider  board. 
If  you  do,  select  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2)  ;  .pre- 
pare a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  mark- 
ing gauge,  gauge  the  width  on  both  surfaces  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 6).  Rip  just  outside  the  gauge  lines.  Plane  to  the  gauge 
lines.  In  like  manner  prepare  all  the  strips.  NOTE: — In  getting 
out  a  number  of  pieces  from  stock,  be  sure  to  prepare  a  working 
edge  on  the  stock  each  time  before  attempting  to  lay  out  the  re- 
quired piece.  Cut  all  the  strips  the  required  lengths,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing.  Locate  the  places  where  the  holes  are  to  be  bored. 
The  holes  for  the  dowels  should  not  be  bored  entirely  through. 
The  holes  for  the  rope  should  be  bored  through  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  9).  Round  the  ends  of  each  piece,  and  chamfer  the  cor- 
ners, as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Note  that  these  chamfers  do  not 
extend  the  entire  length  of  the  strips,  therefore  you  cannot  make 
them  with  a  plane.  Lay  them  out  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8)  and 
cut  them  with  a  knife.  Smooth  with  a  wood  file  and  sandpaper. 

THE  DOWELS. 

Dowels  are  to  be  used  for  the  upright  rails  between  the  strips. 
Cut  the  required  number  the  length  indicated  in  the  drawing. 
NOTE : — Dowel  rods  and  small  strips  can  be  conveniently  sawed  in 
the  square  cut  of  a  miter  box. 

COMPLETING  THE  BOTTOM. 

After  the  glue  has  had  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  to  hard- 
en, remove  the  clamps  and  plane  both  surfaces  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 


92 

graphs  2  and  3) .  In  making  this  piece  the  desired  shape  it  would 
be  well  first  to  cut  it  perfectly  square,  after  which  you  can  easily 
and  accurately  lay  out  the  required  shape.  Bore  the  holes  as  re- 
quired (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9).  If  desired,  battens  about  li/2" 
wide  may  be  used  on  the  under  side  of  this  bottom  piece.  They 
will  add  considerable  strength  and  prevent  warping. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Glue  the  ends  of  the  dowels  into  their  proper  positions  in  the 
side  and  back  strips.  Do  not  assemble  with  the  rope  until  the  fin- 
ishing is  completed. 

FINISHING. 

With  fine  sandpaper  remove  all  rough  places.  Stain  the  de- 
sired color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54)  and  finish  with  two  or 
three  coats  of  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57).  Assemble 
with  the  rope.  Tie  knots  on  the  lower  side  of  the  bottom  to  pre- 
vent the  rope  from  pulling  out. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 
PLAYGROUND  SWING. 

1.  A  very  suitable  playground  swing  may  be  made  of  small 
chains  fastened  to  a  strong  seat  board  with  two  eye  bolts,  as  shown 
in  suggestion  No.  1.    This  sort  of  swing  has  the  advantage  of  the 
seat  board  being  held  permanently  in  position.     The  use  of  the 
chain  also  makes  it  durable  for  outside  service. 

BOX  SWING. 

2.  A  very  simple  and  easily  constructed  swing  may  be  made 
of  a  small  dry  goods  box.     Select  a  box  which  is  made  of  sound 
material,  and  cut  it  the  shape  shown  in  suggestion  No.  2.     It  may 
be  hung  with  strips  of  wood  or  a  small  rope  or  chain,  which  should 
be  attached  to  cross  battens  extending  entirely  across  the  under 
side  of  the  box.    One  pair  of  ropes  or  chains,  as  the  case  may  be, 
might  be  attached  to  the  box  near  the  top  to  prevent  tilting  over. 


93 


FLY  TRAP 

MATERIALS. 
Basswood  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  31). 

8  pcs.  3/8"xl"xl2i/2"  S  2  S  Sides. 
8  pcs.  %"xl"x  71/2"  S  2  S  Cross 

pieces. 
5  pcs.  i/2"x34"x9"  S  2  S  Top  pcs. 

8  pcs.  l/I"x34"x9"  S  2  S  Trim. 
3  dozen  1"  brads. 

3  dozen  1/2"  brads. 

11/2  dozen  %"  corrugated  nails. 

1  yard  24"  screen  wire. 

9  dozen  small  tacks. 

1  piece  5/32"  Bessemer  rod  8" 
long. 

2  screw  eyes  No.  114. 

1  pair  3/4"x%"  brass  hinges. 
1  small  clasp. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Recent  investigation  has  proven  that  the  common  housefly  is 
a  very  dangerous  enemy  to  human  life.  The  fact  that  it  spreads 
disease  and  is  in  every  way  undesirable  is  sufficient  reason  why 
everybody  should  be  as  careful  as  possible  to  prevent  its  increase. 
One  of  the  most  successful  ways  to  wage  war  on  flies  is  to  screen 
our  homes  so  as  to  shut  them  out,  and  then  leave  no  uncovered  gar- 
bage pails  or  any  other  feeding  places  for  them. 

In  cities  where  everybody  has  been  interested  in  disposing  of 
flies  the  results  have  been  very  encouraging.  School  children  have 
helped  wonderfully  by  engaging  in  fly-catching  contests. 

You  can  do  a  great  practical  good  for  your  own  home  and 
community  by  making  this  flytrap  carefully  and  using  it  through- 
out the  fly  season. 


References : 

The  House  Fly  as  Disease  Carrier,  L.  0.  Howard.     Published  by  F.  A. 

Stokes  Pub.  Co.,  New  York. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  459,  and  U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  679,  House  Flies. 
Insects  ar.d  Disease,  Doane.    Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Our  Household  Insects,  Butler.     Longmans,  Green  Co. 
Household  Insects  and  Methods  of  Control,  Bulletin  No.  3,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  155,  How  Insects  Affect  Health. 
Fly  Traps  and  Literature.    International  Harvester  Co.,  Chicago. 
Winter  War  on  Flies,  Willard  Price,  Technical  World,  February,  1915. 
Our  Insect  Friends  and  Enemies,  John  Smith.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Pub.  Co. 


94 


FLY  TRAP 


.WE 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESI6H 


*-6LAss  FRUIT  JAR 
WITH  OPENING  In  LID 


'. .  f 


-HOOPS  OF 

'FENCE  WIRE 


95 

FLY  TRAP  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SIDE  STRIPS. 

You  will  probably  have  to  rip  your  material  from  stock; 
select  the  best  surface  of  your  stock  for  a  working  face 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2) ;  plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  marking  gauge,  gauge  the 
width  of  the  strips  on  both  surfaces  of  the  stock  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  6).  Rip  just  outside  the  line;  plane  to  the  gauge  lines. 
Prepare  all  the  side  strips  in  like  manner.  Saw  them  the  required 
length.  Notice  that  on  two  sides  of  the  fly  trap,  the  side  strips 
are  narrower  than  on  the  other  two  sides.  This  is  done  so  the  four 
sides  will  be  equal  when  assembled.  Miter  the  lower  end  of  each 
strip,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  SIDE  CROSS  RAILS. 

Rip  out  and  plane  the  side  cross  rails  in  the  same  manner  in 
which  you  have  made  the  side  strips.  Cut  all  these  rails  the  re- 
quired length,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  They  may  be  easily  and 
accurately  sawed  in  the  square  cut  of  a  miter  box. 

ASSEMBLING  THE  BODY  OF  THE  TRAP. 

Each  side  is  merely  a  rectangular  frame.  Lay  two  side  strips 
flat  on  your  bench  top  with  the  two  cross  rails  in  such  position  as 
to  form  a  frame;  make  the  angles  square  and  fasten  with  corru- 
gated nails  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  23).  Assemble  all  sides  in 
like  manner.  Cut  screen  wire  the.  proper  size  and  cover  the  in- 
side of  each  frame;  fasten  the  screen  wire  in  position  with  small 
tacks.  Assemble  the  four  frames  box  fashion;  they  should  be 
joined  with  a  plain  butt  joint  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  60)  at  each 
corner;  fasten  with  brads  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  21). 

THE  LID. 

The  lid  is  a  square  frame  (with  a  cross  bar  in  the  middle  for 
the  handle)  joined  at  the  corners  with  plain  butt  joints  (Chapter 
V.,  Paragraph  60),  fastened  with  brads.  Square  the  stock  for  the 
lid  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  1,  2,  3  and  4) ;  cut  each  piece  the  re- 
quired dimensions;  assemble  as  explained;  cover  with  screen 
wire.  Strips  of  wood  l/i"  thick  are  to  be  used  as  a  trim  on  the  lid, 
to  cover  the  tacks  and  add  to  the  appearance  of  the  work;  miter 
this  trim  at  each  corner  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  64)  ;  fasten  it  on 
with  brads. 


96 
THE  INSIDE  WIRE  PYRAMID. 

In  order  to  cut  the  screen  wire  for  this  piece  you  should  make 
a  pattern  of  paper;  if  you  will  draw  four  triangles  (each  of  the 
size  of  one  side,  as  shown  in  the  drawing)  adjoining  each  other, 
you  will  have  a  correct  pattern.  Allow  about  an  inch  to  make  the 
lap ;  bend  into  proper  shape ;  with  a  piece  of  the  wire  weave  the  open 
corner  securely  together;  place  in  position  and  fasten  with  tacks. 
These  tacks  may  also  be  covered  with  a  trim  just  as  you  did  the 
lid. 

THE  HANDLE. 

Bend  the  wire  to  form  the  handle;  attach  with  two  screw 
eyes.  Fasten  the  lid  in  position  with  two  small  hinges  and  put  on 
the  fastening.  Plane  off  uneven  places  if  there  are  any.  Stain 
some  dark  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

1.  A  very  satisfactory  and  convenient  fly  trap  may  be  made 
of  any  ordinary  glass  fruit  jar,  as  shown  in  the  Suggestions.    The 
entire  central  portion  of  the  lid  is  cut  out.    A  slender  cone  is  made 
of  screen  wire  with  a  small  opening  at  the  point.    This  cone  may 
be  attached  to  the  lid  by  having  a  number  of  small  holes  punched 
around  the  opening  in  the  lid,  through  which  a  small  wire  can  be 
so  woven  as  to  bind  the  cone  securely.    A  thin  piece  of  wood,  with 
four  tacks  or  small  nails,  so  driven  as  to  extend  slightly  above  the 
surface,  will  make  a  satisfactory  base.    In  a  trap  of  this  kind  the 
flies  may  be  easily  killed  by  pouring  in  boiling  water. 

2.  An  all-metal  fly  trap  can  be  made  from  the  lid  of  an  old 
paint  bucket,  a  few  scraps  of  heavy  fence  wire  and  a  piece  of 
screen  wire.  The  screen  wire  is  rolled  into  a  cylinder  just  as  large 
as  the  bucket  lid,  which  is  to  form  the  top.    The  screen  wire  cylin- 
der is  woven  to  the  rim  of  the  lid  through  small  holes,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  drawing.    A  hoop  of  fence  wire  of  the  same  diameter 
as  the  lid  is  attached  to  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder,  to  hold 
it  in  shape.    The  inside  cone  of  screen  wire  is  attached  to  a  second 
hoop    of    the    same    size    as    the    first.    The    cone    is    placed    in 
position,  and  if  properly  made  will  fit  so  closely  that  it  will  not  re- 
quire fastening.     Small  pieces  of  wire  may  be  attached  to  form 
legs  about  a  half-inch  long.    A  sheet  of  tin,  or  an  old  pie  tin  will 
answer  for  a  base. 


97 


MILKING  STOOL 


MATERIALS. 

Beech  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  32)  or  any 
hard  wood. 

1  pc.    Ii/2"x9^"x  91,4"  S  2  S  Top. 
4  pcs.  I^"xli/4"xl2"       S  2  S  Legs. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  milking  stool  is  usually  such  a  rude,  unsightly  piece  of 
equipment  that  it  gets  but  little  consideration  and  is  often  found 
dirty  and  poorly  cared  for.  In  the  modern  dairy  many  of  the  old- 
fashioned,  dirty  and  unsightly  pieces  of  equipment  are  giving 
way  to  things  which  are  more  convenient  and  more  satisfactory 
from  a  sanitary  standpoint. 

This  lesson  shows  how  to  make  a  milking  stool  on  the  same 
principles  which  any  other  stool  should  be  made.  The  fact  that 
it  has  four  legs  keeps  it  from  falling  over  and  getting  unnecessar- 
ily soiled,  also  provides  it  with  greatest  strength.  The  height  of 
the  stool  can  be  made  to  suit  the  desire  of  the  one  who  is  to  use  it. 

This  plan  of  making  a  stool  is  universal  and  can  be  used  in 
making  a  bathroom,  kitchen  or  office  stool.  Of  course  in  making  a 
high  stool  it  would  be  necessary  to  provide  cross  rails  to  brace 
the  legs. 


References : 


4— Voc. 


U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  689,  A  Plan  for  a  Small  Dairy  House. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  413,  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  602,  Clean  Milk. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  363,  The  Use  of  Milk  as  a  Food. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.     32,  Silos  and  Silage. 

Minnesota  Bulletin  No.  130,  Feeding  Dairy  Cows. 

Forest  Planting  and  Farm  Manacement,  U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  228. 


98 


MILKING  STOOL 


I-  -«*•-- 1 


/fH «f — HiiV       H'H «f— -^tf 

SUGGESTIONS  FDR  OKIBIHAL  DESIM 


Cane 


Ho.  3 
KlTCHEH  STOOL 


99 

MILKING  STOOL  SPECIFICATIONS 

NOTE: — This  project  can  be  made  to  serve  either  as  a  milk- 
ing stool  or  a  bathroom  stool.  If  it  is  to  be  a  bathroom  stool  it 
should  have  very  careful  workmanship,  and  should  be  painted 
white  or  enameled. 

THE  TOP. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  the  piece  which  is  intended  for  the 
top  and  prepare  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  If 
you  are  to  use  the  design  of  top  shown  in  the  drawing,  you  will 
find  it  convenient  first  to  make  the  material  perfectly  square,  and 
then  follow  the  directions  for  laying  out  an  octagon  given  in 
Chapter  1,  Problem  14.  Saw  out  the  octagon  and  plane  all  the 
edges  perfectly  square.  The  top  edge  may  be  rounded  or  cham- 
fered (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  19).  The  holes  which  are  to  re- 
ceive the  legs  are  to  be  bored  with  a  %"  or  1"  bit,  whichever  you 
may  have  in  the  shop.  Determine  the  angle  which  you  wish  to 
use  (this  can  be  done  with  the  eye).  Then  set  the  T-bevel.  Hold 
the  T-bevel  in  such  a  position  as  to  keep  the  bit  at  the  proper  angle 
while  boring  the  holes  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  12).  Do  not  bore 
the  holes  entirely  through.  In  making  a  milking  stool  the  holes 
are  sometimes  bored  entirely  through  so  the  legs  can  be  wedged 
in  from  the  top  side  and  sawed  off  even  with  the  top. 

THE  LEGS. 

In  making  the  legs,  first  plane  the  material  perfectly  square 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3  and  4).  They  are  to  be  made  oc- 
tagon shape  by  planing  away  the  corners.  These  corners  should 
be  gauged  with  the  lead  pencil  and  finger  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
8) .  Carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  The  top  end  of  each  leg  is 
to  be  rounded  so  it  will  enter  the  hole  in  top  board.  This  may  be 
done  with  a  knife  and  finished  with  a  wood  file  and  sandpaper 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  15). 

ASSEMBLING. 

Spread  a  little  glue  on  the  rounded  ends  of  the  legs  and  drive 
them  into  their  places.  When  the  work  is  all  assembled,  thorough- 
ly clean  it  with  a  steel  scraper  and  sandpaper.  The  bottom  ends 
of  the  legs  may  be  laid  out  the  desired  shape  by  setting  the  stool  on 
a  table  top  or  level  floor  and  laying  out  with  the  compasses ;  or  this 
may  be  done  by  laying  a  ruler  flat  on  the  floor,  and  marking  on  the 
top  edge  of  it  all  around  the  legs ;  saw  on  these  lines. 


100 

FINISHING. 

If  it  is  to  be  used  for  a  milking  stool  it  should  be  given  a  coat 
of  paint  of  any  desirable  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52).  If 
it  is  to  be  used  for  a  bathroom  stool  it  can  be  made  very  attractive 
by  giving  it  two  coats  of  white  paint,  and  one  coat  of  white  enamel. 

It  is  sometimes  thought  desirable  to  make  a  milking  stool 
with  only  three  legs  so  that  it  will  sit  level  on  an  uneven  surface. 
If  you  care  to  do  this,  follow  No.  1  in  the  suggestions  given. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

COOKING  STOOL. 

1.  It  is  usually  desirable  to  have  the  school  kitchen  equipped 
with  stools.    These  can  be  made  on  the  same  plan  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  milking  stool.     The  top  should  be  round,  of  the 
desired  size,  possibly  10"  or  12"  in  diameter;  the  legs  may  be 
round,  octagonal  or  square.    They  should  be  about  18"  long.  There 
should  be  two  cross  rails  between  each  pair  of  legs,  as  shown  in 
suggestion  No.  3.    White  enamel  makes  a  very  desirable  finish  for 
a  stool  of  this  kind. 

OFFICE  STOOL. 

2.  An  office  stool  may  be  made  on  the  plan  already  given  with 
the  height  changed  to  suit  individual  needs.     The  solid  top  may 
be  used,  although  a  more  desirable  plan  is  to  construct  a  frame  of 
four  pieces  neatly  joined  with  dowels,  as  shown  in  suggestion  No. 
3.    This  frame  may  have  a  bottom  woven  of  cane  or  may  be  cov- 
ered with  a  patent  imitation  of  leather,  which  can  be  purchased 
at  any  f'irniture  store. 


101 


HARNESS  RACK 


MATERIALS. 

Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29)   or  any 
strong  wood. 


1  pc.    %"x2iA"xl5^"  S2S  Back. 

1  pc.    %"x2i4"xl4"       S2S  Front 
brace. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x2i/4/'x8"        S  2  S  Side 
braces. 

1  PC.    %"x6!/2"  dowel  rod. 
12-6d  finish  nails. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

If  you  visit  a  great  many  barns  you  will  no  doubt  find  that 
some  people  are  very  careless  in  their  methods  of  caring  for  the 
harness.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  harness  laid  on  the  barn  floor, 
thrown  carelessly  in  a  corner  or  poorly  hung  on  a  nail,  which  is 
insufficient.  Such  methods  not  only  cause  considerable  waste  of 
time  in  handling  the  harness,  but  also  bring  about  unnecessary 
damage. 

The  purpose  of  this  harness  rack  is  to  provide  a  simple  and 
easily  made  hanger  which  can  be  fastened  to  a  wall  or  post  and 
furnish  a  hanger  which  will  keep  the  harness  in  good  condition 
and  always  ready  for  use. 


References : 


Manufacture  of  Leather  in  Packing  House  Industries.     International 

Library  of  Technology. 
Leather;    Stories    of   Industries,   Vol.   2,   Chase   &    Clow.      Educational 

Pub.  Co. 

By-Products  of  the  Meat  Packing  Industry.     Swift  &  Co.,  Chicago. 
Tanning  and  Preparation  of  Leather,  Champlin's  Cyclopedia  of  Common 

Things  (p.  425).    Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Great  American  Industries,  W.  F.  Rocheleau.     A.  Flanagan  Pub.  Co., 

New  York. 

How  We  are  Clothed,  Chamberlain.    Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 
American  Inventions  and  Inventors,   Mowry.     Silver,   Burdette  &   Co., 

Chicago. 

How  the  World  is  Clothed,  Carpenter.    American  Book  Co.,  Chicago. 
The  Farm  Wood  Lot,  U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  276. 


102 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGH 


0 

0 

0    0 

0 

H0.Z 

WOODEN  PINS 


3 

i 

i            | 

i           i 

> 

s 
• 

a 

L 

NO.  3 
HOOKS  OF STRAP  I  RON 


103 

HARNESS  RACK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BACK  PIECE. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  surface  it.  Select  the  best  side  and  mark  it  the  working  face 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge 
(Chapter  I.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  marking  gauge,  carefully 
gauge  the  width  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6)  and  plane  to  the  gauge 
line.  Square  one  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Lay  out  the 
length  of  the  back  piece,  and  cut  this  end  perfectly  straight. 
Chamfer  the  end  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  FRONT  BRACE. 

Select  the  best  surface  and  mark  it  the  working  face  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  2) .  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  square  for  a  work- 
ing edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  marking  gauge, 
set  exactly  as  it  was  when  you  gauged  the  back  piece,  gauge  the 
width  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6) ;  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Notice 
that  the  lower  part  of  this  piece  is  to  be  cut  on  an  angle.  About 
a  third-pitch  cut  will  be  suitable  for  this  angle.  You  may  set  your 
T-bevel  to  this  angle  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  25).  Lay  out  the 
angle  on  one  edge  of  the  material.  With  the  try-square,  square 
this  line  across  the  working  face,  and  lay  out  the  angle  on  the  other 
edge  to  correspond  with  the  first  edge.  Place  the  material  in  the 
vise  and  carefully  saw  on  the  lines.  Measure  the  length  shown 
in  the  drawing,  and  form  the  other  end. 

SIDE  BRACES. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  the  piece  from  which  the  side  braces 
are  to  be  made,  and  mark  it  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 2).  Plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 4).  Gauge  the  width,  as  shown  in  the  drawing  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  6) ;  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  This  brace  is  also  to 
be  cut  at  an  angle.  This  may  be  done  after  the  work  is  assembled 
if  you  choose.  At  the  other  end  these  braces  are  to  be  cut  square. 

THE  DOWEL. 

Measure  and  cut  the  dowel  the  length  shown  in  the  drawing. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Nail  the  side  braces  in  position  shown  in  the  drawing.  Put 
the  front  brace  in  its  position;  nail  through  the  side  braces  into 


104 

it,  making  sure  that  you  are  holding  it  in  such  a  position  as  to 
make  the  bottom  end  fit  snugly  against  the  back  piece.  With  the 
try-square,  test  to  make  sure  that  the  side  braces  are  exactly  at 
a  right  angle  to  the  back  piece.  While  holding  in  this  position 
nail  through  the  front  brace  into  the  back  piece  at  each  edge.  Do 
not  nail  near  the  center  because  the  nails  will  interfere  with  the 
boring  for  the  dowel.  Bore  for  the  dowels  with  the  bit  inclined 
slightly  up.  This  will  give  the  pin  an  upward  tendency.  Notice 
that  the  pin  extends  through  the  brace  and  back  piece.  If  neces- 
sary you  may  split  the  back  end  of  the  pin  and  wedge  it  to  make 
it  perfectly  secure.  Bore  the  hole  for  the  screw  upon  which  the 
harness  rack  is  to  hang  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9).  If  you  think 
necessary,  you  may  bore  another  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  back 
piece  and  thus  provide  room  for  two  screws.  This  hanger  may 
be  placed  on  a  post  or  on  a  flat  surface. 

FINISHING. 

Carefully  scrape  and  sandpaper  all  surfaces.  The  top  out- 
side edges  of  the  side  braces  should  be  chamfered  and  slightly 
rounded.  This  may  be  done  with  a  pocket  knife  and  wood  file  and 
finished  with  sandpaper.  This  piece  of  work  may  be  finished  with 
a  coat  of  paint  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52)  or  it  may  be  stained 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54)  and  shellaced  (Chapter  IV.,  Para- 
graph 57). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 
HARNESS  RACK  WITH  DOWELS. 

1.  A  very  easily  constructed  harness  rack  may  be  made  by 
boring  a  number  of  holes  slightly  on  an  angle,  and  driving  in  large 
dowels  or  wooden  pins  as  hangers.     A  heavy  board  may  be  used 
for  the  base,  or  the  holes  may  be  bored  directly  in  a  post  or  beam 
of  the  barn. 

HARNESS  RACK  WITH  METAL  HOOKS. 

2.  Very  substantial  hooks  may  be  made  out  of  heavy  strap 
iron  or  pieces  of  buggy  tire.    These  pieces  of  metal  should  be  cut 
the  desired  length  then  have  two  or  three  holes  drilled  near  one 
end.     These  holes  should  be  countersunk    to    receive    the    screw 
heads.    Each  piece  should  then  be  bent  to  form  the  hook,  as  shown 
in  drawing  No.  3. 


105 


FLOWER  TRELLIS 

MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48)  or  any 
soft  wood. 

1  pc.   7/8"x2"x  5"      S  2  S  Upright. 

7  pcs.  y8"xl"x30"       S  2  S  Cross  strips. 

2  pcs.  %"x5"x  71,4"  S  2  S  Brackets. 
2l/2  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 

2  pieces  soft  iron  wire  50". 
16-%"  staples. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  a  great  many  cities  prizes  are  being  offered  and  other  in- 
ducements set  forth  to  encourage  people  to  keep  their  lawns  clean 
and  make  their  shrubbery  attractive.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see 
an  otherwise  beautiful  rosebush  or  trailing  vine  showing  neglect 
on  account  of  the  lack  of  some  sort  of  support.  A  flower  trellis 
made  after  the  fashion  shown  in  this  lesson  can  be  used  to  over- 
come this  difficulty.  In  making  a  flower  trellis  you  should  con- 
sider the  size,  shape  and  weight  of  the  bush  for  which  it  is  in- 
tended and  make  it  sufficiently  strong  and  otherwise  suited  to  that 
particular  kind  of  bush.  It  is  well  to  make  the  trellis  larger  than 
required  so  it  can  be  used  year  after  year.  By  making  it  of  good 
material  and  doing  the  work  accurately,  then  painting  it,  it  can 
be  made  to  add  very  much  to  the  appearance  of  one's  lawn  or 
garden. 


References : 


U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  185,  Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.     91,  Lawns  and  Lawn-making. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  248,  The  Lawn. 

New  York  Bulletin  No.  2,  The  Flower  Garden,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds;  Sixty  Lessons  in  Agriculture.     Buffum 

&  Deaver. 

Our  Garden  Flowers,  Keeler.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 
Practical  Forestry.    Gifford. 


106 


FLOWER  TRELLIS 


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SUGGESTION  FOR  ORIGINAL  DES1GH 


HO.  I 


NO.  2 


N0.3, 


107 

FLOWER  TRELLIS  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  UPRIGHT. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
for  you  to  plane  the  surface.  Select  the  best  surface  for  the 
working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2) .  Plane  one  edge  perfectly 
straight  as  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  a 
marking  gauge,  gauge  the  width  the  entire  length  on  both  surfaces 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6) .  Carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Pre- 
pare one  end  for  a  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) .  Measure 
and  cut  the  length  (if  desired  the  bottom  end  may  be  left  consider- 
ably longer  than  indicated  in  the  drawing  so  it  can  be  pointed  and 
driven  in  the  ground.  It  is  preferable,  however,  to  drive  heavy 
stakes  into  the  ground  and  to  fasten  the  flower  trellis  to  it  with 
nails  or  screws.  This  will  avoid  battering  the  top  end  in  the  driv- 
ing process). 

THE  CROSS  STRIPS. 

If  you  are  cutting  this  material  from  stock  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  rip  out  the  cross  strips.  In  this  case  select  the  best  surface 
of  your  stock  for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2). 
Carefully  plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 4).  With  a  marking  gauge,  lay  out  the  width  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  6).  Rip  just  outside  the  gauge  line,  and  plane  to  the 
line.  Again  prepare  a  working  edge  on  the  stock  material,  and  in 
the  same  manner  lay  out  and  rip  the  second  strip.  Continue  this 
process  until  all  the  strips  are  provided.  If  the  strips  are  provided 
properly  ripped,  all  you  will  need  to  do  is  to  prepare  a  working  edge, 
and  gauge  the  width  as  already  indicated. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Notice  that  the  strips  are  to  be  gained  into  the  upright  their 
full  size.  Measure  and  lay  out  the  spaces  between  the  strips. 
With  a  try-square,  square  across  the  working  edge  of  the  upright 
where  the  gains  are  to  be  cut.  Be  very  careful  not  to  lay  out  the 
gains  too  wide,  or  the  strips  will  not  fill  them  and  the  joints  will 
be  bad.  If  your  strips  have  been  perfectly  prepared  they  will  be 
the  same  width,  and  the  gains  will  all  be  cut  exactly  alike.  If  there 
is  any  variation,  it  will  be  necessary  for  you  to  test  each  strip  to  see 
that  it  will  fit  the  gain  laid  out  for  it.  t  In  sawing  for  gains,  saw 
just  inside  the  pencil  lines.  With  the  marking  gauge,  gauge 


108 

the  depth  of  these  gains  on  both  surfaces  of  the  up- 
right. Do  not  gauge  beyond  the  pencil  lines,  for  this  will  leave 
an  ugly  mark  on  your  upright.  With  the  back  saw,  saw  down  to 
the  gauge  line,  and  with  a  sharp  chisel  cut  out  the  wood  between 
the  saw  kerfs.  The  bottom  and  top  strips  are  to  be  cut  a  little 
shorter  than  the  others  so  as  to  give  the  rack  a  pleasing  shape; 
use  your  own  judgment  in  this  matter.  The  strips  are  to  be 
fastened  in  place  with  nails  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  21). 

THE  BRACKETS. 

Lay  out  the  brackets  in  any  suitable  design.  Saw  them  out 
with  the  compass  saw  or  coping  saw,  and  carefully  smooth  the 
edges  with  a  wood  file.  Fasten  the  brackets  into  position  with 
nails,  making  sure  they  are  perfectly  square  so  as  to  make  the 
strips  stand  square  across  the  upright.  The  wire  should  be  fas- 
tened with  staples  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  strips. 

FINISHING. 

As  this  flower  trellis  is  to  be  used  out  of  doors,  where  it  will 
be  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  should  be  well  painted  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  52)  or  given  a  good  oil  stain. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

A  METAL  TRELLIS. 

1.  A  very  durable  flower  trellis  may  be  made  by  bending  a 
long  piece  of  iron  pipe  to  form  a  half -circle,  or  any  other  desired 
curve.    The  ends  of  the  pipe  should  be  driven  in  the  ground  deep 
enough  to  cause  it  to    stand    perfectly    rigid.      This    framework 
should  be  neatly  covered  with  poultry  netting.    With  this  style  of 
trellis  fancy  and  ornamental  shapes  may  be  worked  out  if  desired. 

BENT  WOOD  TRELLIS. 

2.  A  very  interesting  trellis  may  be  made  by  ripping  a  wide 
board  almost  its  full  length,  and  spreading  the  strips  into  some 
pleasing  shape,  as  shown  in  suggestion  No.  3.     A  bolt  should  be 
put  through  the  board  edgewise  to  prevent  splitting.     The  wood 
for  this  sort  of  trellis  must  be  carefully  selected.      It    must   be 
straight  grained;  elm  would  probably  be  the  most  suitable. 


109 
SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COMMUNITY  RESEARCH. 

No.  1.  Do  you  know  of  a  pattern-maker's  shop  in  your  com- 
munity? If  you  do,  visit  it  and  ask  the  pattern-maker  to  show 
you  the  kind  of  drawings  from  which  he  works.  Ask  him  to  tell 
you  how  his  blue  prints  are  made.  How  much  per  week  can  a  pat- 
tern-maker earn  in  your  community?  Is  the  pattern-maker's 
trade  as  important  now  as  years  ago?  Find  out  all  you  can  about 
this  trade  and  decide  whether  it  would  be  a  promising  occupation 
for  a  boy  to  learn.  Is  it  likely  that  machinery  will  entirely  take 
the  place  of  handwork  in  pattern-making? 

No.  2.  Is  the  force  of  the  wind  used  to  do  any  kind  of  work 
in  your  neighborhood?  Why  is  this  true? 

No.  3.  Does  your  school  have  an  outdoor  playground  equip- 
ment ?  Why  ?  What  portion  of  an  outdoor  playground  equipment, 
which  would  be  suitable  for  your  school,  could  be  made  in  the 
manual  training  shop? 

No.  4.  What  measures  are  being  taken  in  your  home  to  dis- 
pose of  house  flies?  Find  out  how  the  garbage  and  other  waste 
matter  about  your  home  is  disposed  of.  Do  you  think  this  is  be- 
ing done  in  the  very  best  way  to  prevent  the  increase  of  flies? 
Discuss  this  question  with  your  parents.  Take  home  your  fly  trap 
and  catch  as  many  flies  as  possible.  You  would  find  it  interest- 
ing to  talk  to  your  local  physician  about  some  of  the  causes  and 
means  of  preventing  typhoid  fever. 

No.  5.  If  possible,  visit  a  dairy  farm  and  get  some  one  to 
tell  you  what  improvements  have  been  made  in  dairying  in  the 
past  ten  years.  If  you  keep  cows  at  your  home,  do  you  use  the 
most  modern  methods  of  dairying?  Why?  Ask  your  parents  for 
their  opinions  on  these  matters. 

No.  6.  Visit  a  harness  shop  and  find  out  from  the  proprietor 
whether  the  demand  for  harness-makers  is  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing. How  much  per  week  does  the  average  harness-maker  earn? 
Would  this  be  a  good  trade  for  a  boy  to  learn?  Why? 

No.  7.  How  many  different  kinds  of  flowers,  trees  and 
shrubs  (not  counting  garden  vegetables)  are  you  raising  in  your 
yard  at  home?  What  advantages  are  there  in  trimming  shrubs 
and  tying  them  neatly  on  well-made  trellises  ? 

No.  8.  Visit  a  sugar  camp  and  learn  all  you  can  about  mak- 
ing maple  sugar.  How  many  kinds  of  maple  grow  in  your  com- 
munity ? 


110 
REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS. 

1.  Why  are  dowels  used  in  gluing  together  the  edges  of 
boards?    How  should  the  grain  be  turned  in  gluing  together  sev- 
eral narrow  boards? 

2.  How  may  a  piece  of  work  be  assembled  without  the  use 
of  nails,  brads  or  screws? 

3.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  in  your  drawing  board?    What 
would  be  the  cost  of  this  material  at  $60.00  per  M.? 

4.  How  much  is  the  labor  on  your  drawing  board  worth, 
counting  the  time  which  you  have  spent  on  it  at  15  cents  per  hour? 
Figure  any  other  project  which  you  have  made. 

5.  Make  inquiry  regarding  any  wind  pump  in  your  neigh- 
borhood and  find  out  how  many  hours'  work  per  week  it  saves  the 
owner;  at  that  rate  how  long  will  it  take  for  the  pump  to  pay  for 
itself? 

6.  If  the  material  for  a  book  rack  costs  15  cents,  and  you 
can  sell  it  when  completed  for  65  cents,  for  how  many  hours' 
work  would  you  be  paid,  counting  your  time  worth  12 i  cents  per 
hour? 

7.  Why  should  a  bread  or  meat  board  be  free  from  cracks 
and  perfectly  smooth  on  all  of  its  surfaces?     Name  four  or  five 
kinds  of  wood  which  would  be  suitable  for  such  a  board.     Name 
some  kind  of  wood  which  you  think  would  not  be  suitable  for  this 
purpose.    Why? 

8.  What  features  must  receive  careful  attention  in  making 
a  T-square? 

9.  What  effect  does  dampness  have  on  wood?    How  can  wood 
which  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather  be  protected? 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
a  three-legged  milking  stool?    Of  a  one-legged  stool? 

11.  How  would  you  make  a  suitable  finish  on  a  kitchen  stool? 

12.  What  are  battens,  and  why  are  they  used  ? 

13.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  a  flower  trellis  made 
of  iron  pipe  and  wire? 

14.  How  can  you  tell  a  rip  saw  from  a  cross-cutting  saw? 

15.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  in  keeping  tools  sharp? 

16.  How  many  tops  for  camp  stools,  as  given  in  this  sec- 
tion, can  be  cut  from  a  square  yard  of  canvas?    What  will  be  the 
cost  of  one  stool  top  at  the  price  charged  at  your  local  dry  goods 
store? 


Ill 
REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS  (Concluded). 

17.  Why  are  the  hanging  holes  in  a  bracket  shelf  bored  ex- 
actly 16  inches  apart? 

18.  When  screws  form  a  part  of  the  decoration  on  a  piece  of 
work,  what  should  be  their  position? 

19.  About  how  many  average-sized  ears  of  corn,  as  raised 
in  your  community,  are  required  to  make  a  bushel? 

20.  In  buying  material  less  than  one  inch  thick,  how  is  the 
thickness  considered?    If  it  is  more  than  one  inch  thick? 

21.  What  are  the  regular  widths  of  screen  wire  carried  by 
your  local  hardware  store?    Find  out  the  price  per  yard. 

22.  How  is  small  rope  like  that  used  in  the  child's  swing  les- 
son usually  sold,  by  the  yard,  bundle  or  pound?    About  how  many 
yards  of  such  rope  are  required  to  make  a  pound? 

23.  How  can  you  test  to  make  sure  that  holes  are  being  bored 
perpendicularly  ? 

24.  How  can  you  test  to  make  sure  that  a  number  of  holes  are 
all  being  bored  at  the  same  angle? 

25.  What  is  meant  by  the  "set"  in  a  saw?  Why  is  it  necessary? 

26.  In  sawing  gains,  on  which  side  of  the  mark  would  you 
saw?    Why? 

27.  In  gauging  the  width  of  a  piece  of  material,  why  should 
you  gauge  it  on  both  surfaces? 


112 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SECTION  III 

BY  the  time  this  section  is  reached  students  should  be  pretty 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  more  common  elementary  tool 
processes  and  should  have  but  little  difficulty  in  interpreting 
the  working  drawings.  The  use  of  the  ruler,  try-square  and 
marking  gauge  in  simple  laying  out  work  should  be  undertaken 
with  considerable  confidence. 

The  projects  of  this  section  will  be  found  somewhat  more 
difficult  than  those  of  the  preceding  sections,  not  so  much  in  the 
matter  of  the  introduction  of  difficult  joints  as  in  awakening  and 
testing  the  judgment  of  the  student  in  problems  of  assembling. 
No  effort  is  made  to  give  specific  directions  step  by  step  for  the 
assembling  even  of  some  of  the  more  complicated  projects,  such 
as  the  water  wheel  and  dishcloth  rack.  The  matter  of  "getting 
together"  the  parts  of  a  piece  of  work  after  all  are  correctly  made 
presents  the  greatest  possible  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  the 
initiative  of  the  student.  The  latitude  which  is  left  in  this  por- 
tion of  the  specifications  is  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  con- 
structive thought. 

The  introduction  of  some  hardwood  projects  will  make  a  test 
of  the  students'  ability  along  the  line  of  certain  tool  processes 
which  they  may  have  performed  with  ease  on  soft  wood.  The 
fact  that  hard  wood  offers  greater  difficulties  must  not  be  made 
an  excuse  for  less  perfect  work. 

The  simple  miter  joint  is  introduced  in  connection  with  the 
miter  box  lesson.  Considerable  emphasis  must  be  laid  upon  this 
principle,  for  it  has  almost  unlimited  application  in  future  work. 
Students  should  learn  to  lay  out  and  cut  this  joint  without  the 
use  of  a  box;  when  a  knowledge  of  how  to  obtain  the  angle  has 
been  acquired,  the  assistance  of  the  box  may  be  employed  in 
practical  work. 

By  the  time  students  have  reached  this  stage  in  their  work 
they  should  be  taking  considerable  interest  in  finding  home  appli- 
cations for  the  principles  mastered  at  school;  self-reliance  will  be 
greatly  improved  by  the  efforts  on  practical  problems  which  are 
not  under  the  constant  dictation  and  supervision  of  the  teacher. 

An  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  drawing  work  must  be 
instilled;  whether  the  subject  is  given  at  a  regular  period  or  is 
studied  incidentally  with  the  shop  work,  it  must  have  very  careful 
and  constant  consideration. 


113 


SLEEVE  BOARD 


MATERIALS. 

Yellow    Pine    (Chap.    III., 

Par.  48)  or  any  soft 

wood. 

1  pc.     % "x5     "x24"    S  2  S 
Top. 

1  pc.     7/8"x534"x20"    s  2  S 
Base. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x4     "x  7"    S  2  S 
Blocks. 

8-li/2"    No.    10    F.    H.    B. 
screws. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

This  sleeve  board  offers  a  solution  to  the  problem  of  pressing 
the  sleeve  of  a  garment  without  causing  a  crease.  Some  house- 
keepers consider  a  sleeve  board  a  very  important  piece  of  equip- 
ment. It  can  be  used  in  a  number  of  ways  in  ironing  and  press- 
ing. The  pressing  board  may  be  covered  with  heavy  muslin  or 
whatever  padding  the  user  may  desire. 


References : 


Educational  Woodworking  for  Home  and  School,  Park.  Macmillan  Co., 
New  York. 

Training  in  Woodwork,  Tate.  Northwestern  School  Supply  Co.,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn. 

American  Boy's  Workshop,  Kelland.    Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  173,  A  Primer  of  Forestry. 


114 


SLEEVE  BOARD 


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SUGGESTION  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGN 


N0.2-LARtt  IRONING  BOARD 


THE  TOP. 

Although  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  you  should  plane 
the  surface  with  a  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  very  thin  shaving. 
Select  the  best  surface  for  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
2).  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  for  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Prepare  a  working  end  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  5) ;  lay  out  and  cut  length  of  the  top  piece,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  With  the  compasses  set  to  the  proper 
radius  (shown  in  the  drawing)  lay  out  the  shape  of  the  top.  With 
the  compass  saw  cut  the  curves  and  with  a  rip  saw  finish  sawing 
out  the  top.  Carefully  plane  all  the  edges  and  make  sure  they  are 
perfectly  square  with  the  working  face.  The  round  ends  may  be 
finished  with  a  wood  file. 

THE  BASE. 

Select  the  best  surface  for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
4).  Lay  out  and  cut  the  base  the  shape  and  dimensions  shown  in 
the  drawing.  Make  sure  that  the  edges  are  planed  perfectly 
square ;  finish  the  ends  with  a  wood  file  and  sandpaper. 

THE  BLOCKS. 

Select  the  best  surface  for  a  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 2).  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4). 
Cut  the  two  blocks  rectangular,  the  size  shown  in  the  drawing; 
with  the  compasses  lay  out  the  curve  on  one  of  the  blocks  (with- 
out changing  the  radius  of  the  compasses) ;  lay  out  the  curve  on 
the  other  block  in  the  same  manner.  With  the  compass  saw,  saw 
out  the  curve  in  each  block.  Compare  the  blocks  to  make  sure 
they  are  exactly  the  same  size. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  piece  of  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  screws.  Be  sure 
to  bore  the  holes  in  the  top  and  the  base  large  enough  to  allow  the 
screws  to  pass  through  freely  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9).  Coun- 
tersink the  holes  so  the  screw  heads  will  be  slightly  below  the  sur- 
face when  they  are  driven  in.  In  assembling  this  piece  of  work 
be  very  careful  to  have  the  top  board  stand  exactly  straight  over 
the  center  of  the  base  board. 


116 
FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16)  re- 
move all  pencil  or  tool  marks  from  all  parts  of  the  work.  Smooth 
perfectly  with  a  clean  piece  of  fine  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 17).  Give  the  work  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac  (Chapter 
IV.,  Paragraph  57).  Shellac  the  bottom  of  the  base,  the  under 
side  of  the  top  and  the  inside  of  the  blocks;  these  parts  may  not 
show,  but  shellacing  them  will  prevent  warping. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SIMPLE  PRESSING  BOARD. 

1.  A  simple  pressing  board  to  be  used  on  the  table  can  be  very 
easily  made  of  almost  any  kind  of  lumber.    If  two  or  more  pieces 
are  needed  to  make  the  required  width,  their  edges  should  be 
neatly  joined.     Two  or  three  battens   should  be   attached  with 
screws  on  the  bottom  side ;  a  heavy  piece  of  asbestos  or  a  suitable 
metal  stand  for  the  iron  might  be  fastened  on  the  top  side.    The 
board  should  be  covered  with  some  suitable  material. 

FOLDING  IRONING  BOARD. 

2.  Suggestion  No.  2  presents  an  idea  for  a  folding  ironing 
board;  this  board  is  hinged  to  one  pair  of  legs,  leaving  it  free  to 
raise  at  the  pointed  end.     The  notched  strip  across  the  bottom 
makes  it  possible  to  adjust  the  height  and  also  to  close  it  completely. 


117 


WATER  WHEEL 


MATERIALS. 

Oak   (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29)   or  any 
hard  wood. 

8  pcs.  Wxl3/i"x4i/2"  S  2  S  Paddles. 
2  pcs.  5/8"x4i/2"x4i/2"  S  2  S  Wheels. 
Ipc.    li/8"xli/8"x  6"          Cylinder. 
2  pcs.    %"x2"xl5"      S  2  S  Sides. 
1  pc.     %"x2"x  7"      S  2  S  Top. 
1  pc.     %"x2"x  5"       S  2  S  Bottom. 
8-6d  finishing  nails. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

For  hundreds  of  years  water  power  has  been  used  in  driving 
the  machinery  of  civilized  man.  When  the  invention  of  the  steam 
engine  was  proven  a  success  it  was  so  general  in  its  use  that  it 
threatened  to  take  full  place  of  water  power.  However,  it  has 
been  proven  that  water  power  is  very  economical,  and  it  is  there- 
fore being  used  in  some  of  the  largest  power  plants  in  the  world. 
The  great  plants  at  Niagara  Falls  and  Keokuk,  Iowa,  and  in  a 
great  many  other  places,  all  depend  on  the  same  principle — that 
water  flows  down  hill. 

The  water  wheel  given  in  this  lesson  will  help  you  to  under- 
stand in  a  simple  way  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  using  the  force 
of  water  to  turn  a  wheel.  By  experimenting  with  it  in  currents 
of  water  of  different  depth  and  different  speed  you  will  gain  a 
great  deal  of  information  regarding  water  power. 


References : 


Boys'  Book  of  Inventions,  Roy  S.  Baker.    McClure,  Phillips. 

Toys  and  Toymaking,  George  F.  Johnson.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Manual  Training  Toys  for  the  Boy's  Workshop,  Moore.  Manual  Arts 
Press,  Peoria,  111. 

Water  Wheels,  Young  Folks'  Cyclopedia  of  Common  Things,  Champlin, 
Henry  Holt. 

The  Conservation  of  Water,  John  Mathews.  Small,  Maynard  &  Co., 
Boston. 

Damming  the  World's  Greatest  Rivers,  Rogers.  Scientific  American  Sup- 
plement, August,  1912. 

Harper's  Machinery  Book  for  Boys.    Harper  &  Brothers,  New  York. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  150,  Clearing  New  Land. 


118 


WATER  WHEEL 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  VESI&H 


THE  PADDLE. 

If  the  material  for  the  paddle  is  furnished  in  one  long  strip, 
you  should  make  it  the  desired  thickness  and  width  before  cutting 
off  the  separate  pieces.  Square  this  stock  in  the  regular  way 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5).  If  the  material  is 
furnished  you  in  short  pieces,  first  plane  out  one  paddle  the  de- 
sired dimension.  To  do  this  select  the  best  surface  and  mark  it 
the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Square  one  edge 
for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Gauge  the  width 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6).  Plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Square 
one  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) ;  measure  and  cut  the  length. 
In  like  manner  prepare  the  other  paddles. 

THE  PADDLE  WHEEL. 

The  paddle  wheel  consists  of  two  disks,  which  should  be  laid 
out  with  the  compasses  and  sawed  out  with  the  coping  or  compass 
saw.  Be  sure  to  make  the  two  wheels  exactly  the  same  size. 
After  they  are  sawed  out,  file  the  edges  perfectly  smooth.  Bore 
the  center  holes  on  the  point  where  the  compass  rested  in  draw- 
ing the  circles  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9).  The  paddles  are  to 
be  inserted  in  the  paddle  wheels  by  gains  or  dados.  These  should 
be  cut  at  equal  distances  around  the  circumference  of  the  wheels 
so  the  paddles  will  stand  the  same  distance  apart.  Carefully  lay 
out  these  gains  equally  distant.  Gauge  their  depth  with  the  use 
of  the  pencil  and  finger  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8) .  Saw  the  gains 
down  to  the  gauge  line  and  chisel  them  out  with  a  very  sharp 
chisel. 

CYLINDER  OR  AXLE. 

You  are  to  plane  a  cylinder  or  axle  which  will  fit  the  holes 
which  you  have  bored  in  the  paddle  wheels.  To  plane  this  cylin- 
der, first  plane  the  stick  perfectly  square,  then  plane  off  the  cor- 
ners, making  it  an  octagon.  Again  plane  off  the  corners  and  con- 
tinue planing  off  corners  until  it  is  as  nearly  round  as  possible. 
It  can  then  be  smoothed  with  a  wood  file  and  finished  with  the 
sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  15).  A  round  tenon  is  to  be 
cut  on  each  end  of  the  axle  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  69) . 

THE  FRAMEWORK. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  plane  the  surface.  Select  the  best  surface  and  mark  it  the 


120 

working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Lay  out  the  two  side  pieces 
and  make  them  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  You 
will  note  from  the  drawing  that  these  two  side  pieces  are  to  be 
fastened  in  position  by  a  bottom  and  top  rail. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Place  the  paddle  wheel  in  position  and  see  that  it  will  turn 
very  easily.  You  must  remember  that  wood  swells  when  it  gets 
wet,  and  unless  the  turning  joint  is  given  considerable  freedom 
it  will  not  turn  after  the  wood  swells.  Make  it  loose  enough  to 
allow  a  small  brad  to  pass  entirely  around  in  the  joint  when  the 
work  is  assembled.  Carefully  nail  the  frame  together  and  test 
again  to  see  that  the  wheel  will  turn  very  freely. 

FINISHING. 

In  as  much  as  this  piece  of  work  is  to  be  used  in  the  water,  it 
should  have  some  sort  of  finish  which  will  protect  it.  The  easiest 
and  best  method  of  finishing  it  is  to  give  it  a  good  heavy  coat  of 
linseed  oil  and  allow  it  to  soak  into  the  wood. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

WATER  MILL. 

1.  Make  a  water  wheel  as  shown  in  this  lesson,  but  let  the 
axle  extend  about  an  inch  beyond  the  frame  on  one  side.     Cut 
out  a  wooden  pulley  about  2i/^"  or  3"  in  diameter  and  fasten  it 
firmly  on  the  extended  axle.    Groove  the  edge  of  the  pulley.    Con- 
struct a  framework  to  hold  as  many  wheels  or  pulleys  as  you  de- 
sire; connect  them  to  your  water  wheel  with  strong  cord  used  as 
a  belt. 

CORN  STALK  WATER  WHEEL. 

2.  A  simple  water  wheel  which  will  furnish  considerable 
amusement  can  be  easily  and  quickly  made  of  corn  stalks.    Select 
a  corn  stalk  as  nearly  cylindrical  as  possible;  cut  a  piece  about 
6"  or  8"  long  for  an  axle.     From  another  piece  of  stalk  prepare 
eight  or  ten  thin  strips  of  the  outside  hard  part  about  %"  wide 
and  3l/£  "  or  4"  long.    These  pieces  are  to  be  used  for  paddles.    In 
the  center  of  the  axle  piece  cut  slits  equally  distant  all  around; 
insert  one  end  of  each  of  the  paddle  pieces  to  form  a  complete 
wheel. 

Cut  two  forked  limbs  and  smooth  the  forks  inside  to  form 
bearings  for  the  axle.  Drive  the  forks  into  the  bed  of  the  stream 
just  far  enough  apart  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  axle. 


121 


WINDOW  BOX 

MATERIALS. 

Poplar  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  42) 

or  any  soft  wood. 

Ipc.  7/8"x63/4"x35"  S2S 
2  pcs.  7/8"x6"x37"  S  2  S 
2  pcs.  7/8"x6"x  6i/2"  S  2  S 
21/2  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  cities  where  there  is  but  little  opportunity  to  come  in  touch 
with  the  beautiful  green  fields  and  bright  flowers  of  the  country, 
much  has  been  done  to  give  a  cheerful  and  beautiful  effect  by  en- 
couraging the  growth  of  plants  and  flowers  in  window  boxes.  Re- 
gardless of  the  surroundings,  a  pretty  window  box  filled  with 
growing  plants  adds  considerably  to  the  beauty  of  the  home. 

This  box  can  be  made  of  almost  any  kind  of  lumber.  Even 
waste  material  from  a  dry  goods  box  can  be  used  if  first-class  ma- 
terial cannot  be  had.  It  should  be  carefully  and  neatly  made  then 
given  at  least  two  coats  of  good  paint  as  a  protection  to  the  wood. 
Various  ways  have  been  devised  for  fastening  window  boxes  in 
position;  sometimes  a  small  brace  bracket  is  used  under  the  box. 
An  easy  and  simple  way  is  to  use  small  screen  door  hooks,  thus 
fastening  each  end  of  the  box  to  the  window  casing,  allowing  the 
weight  of  the  box  to  rest  on  the  window  sill. 


References : 


A  Garden  City  in  a  Country  Village,  Bessie  M.  Weed. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  408,  School  Exercises  in  Plant  Production. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  218,  The  School  Garden. 

The  Flower  Garden,  Bulletin  No.  2,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Lessons  With  Plants,  Bailey.     Macmillan  Pub.  Co. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  157,  The  Propagation  of  Plants. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.     94,  The  Vegetable  Garden. 


122 


WINDOW  FLOWER  BOX 


— 36- 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGIHAL  PESIGH 
MO.I  No.2  No.3 


N0.4- 


No.5 


.HO.  6 

Rustic  Box 


,        '          [ 
'"  •^XN/N/'NXv' 


As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  resurface  it. 

THE  SIDE  PIECES. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  one  of  the  side  pieces  and  mark  it 
the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge 
perfectly  straight  and  square  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4).  With  the  marking  gauge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
6),  or  with  the  lead  pencil  and  ruler  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  7), 
gauge  the  width,  as  shown  in  the  drawing;  gauge  on  both  sur- 
faces. Carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Square  one  end  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  5).  Measure  the  length,  and  in  like  manner 
square  the  other  end.  Prepare  the  other  side  exactly  like  this  one. 

THE  BOTTOM. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  the  bottom  piece  and  mark  it  the 
working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Gauge  the  width  on  both  sur- 
faces (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  6  or  7).  You  will  have  to  think 
carefully  in  determining  the  width  of  the  bottom  piece.  The  di- 
mension in  the  drawing  is  from  outside  to  outside  of  the  box;  it 
therefore  includes  the  width  of  the  bottom  piece  and  the  thickness 
of  the  two  sides.  Square  one  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5). 
Measure  and  lay  out  the  proper  length.  Notice  that  this  bottom 
piece  is  to  be  cut  enough  shorter  than  the  side  pieces  to  receive 
the  end  pieces,  therefore  the  bottom  piece  will  be  the  thickness  of 
the  two  ends  shorter  than  the  side  pieces. 

THE  ENDS. 

Carefully  square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  1,  2,  3, 
4  and  5).  Lay  out  and  cut  one  end  the  desired  size.  (Notice  that 
the  length  of  the  end  pieces  is  determined  by  the  width  of  the 
bottom.)  In  like  manner  prepare  the  other  end.  Carefully  com- 
pare the  two  end  pieces  to  make  sure  they  are  exactly  the  same 
dimensions  and  perfectly  square.  NOTE :  In  any  kind  of  box  con- 
struction the  opposite  sides  must  be  exactly  the  same  length  and 
all  corners  must  be  perfectly  square  or  the  box  will  not  be  rec- 
tangular when  assembled. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  nails  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 21).  Finishing  nails  are  recommended,  because  they  have 


124 

small  heads  and  will  therefore  enable  you  to  do  a  neater  piece  of 
work  (6d  common  nails  or  slender-bodied  box  nails  would  be  satis- 
factory, but  they  must  be  carefully  used  so  the  heads  will  not  dam- 
age the  appearance  of  the  work) . 

FINISHING. 

After  the  box  is  assembled,  with  a  sharp  block  plane  set  to 
take  a  very  thin  shaving,  plane  the  outside  of  all  the  joints  slight- 
ly, if  necessary,  to  make  them  perfectly  even.  Finish  with  a  sharp 
steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16).  Sandpaper  the  en- 
tire surface  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  Inasmuch  as  this  box 
is  to  hold  dirt  and  will  thus  be  kept  moist  almost  constantly,  it 
should  have  at  least  two  coats  of  good  paint,  both  inside  and  out. 
Paint  it  any  desirable  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

PORCH  FLOWER  BOX. 

1.  A  porch  flower  box  should  be  made  the  size  and  shape  to 
suit  the  place  for  which  it  is  intended.    Where  one  side  of  the  box 
is  against  the  wall,  the  shapes  shown  in  suggestions  Nos.  2  and  3 
are  desirable.    If  both  sides  of  the  box  are  exposed,  as  is  the  case 
when  used  on  a  porch  balustrade,  the  shapes  shown  in  Nos.  4  and 
5  would  be  preferable. 

RUSTIC  FLOWER  BOX. 

2.  A  rustic  flower  box  is  always  attractive  and  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  make.    Prepare  a  strong,  substantial  box  of  the  desired  size ; 
collect  a  number  of  limbs  about  li/a"  in  diameter;  leave  on  the 
bark;  rip  them  in  two  lengthwise  and  nail  them  to  the  box,  cover- 
ing it  completely. 


125 

MITER  BOX 

MATERIALS. 

Poplar  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  42) 

or  Yellow  Pine  (Chap. 

III.,  Par.  48). 

1  pc.   li/2"x33/4"x24i/2"  S2S 
Bottom. 

2  pcs.    7/8"x4"x24"i/2"    S2S 
Sides. 

10-li/2"    No.    10    F.    H.    B. 
Screws. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  use  of  the  miter  joint  occurs  so  often  in  so  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  construction  work  that  every  one  needs  to  know  how 
to  lay  out  and  cut  a  miter,  but  for  the  sake  of  speed,  accuracy  and 
convenience,  where  a  number  of  miter  joints  are  to  be  cut  it  is 
well  to  be  provided  with  a  miter  box.  An  all-steel  patent  miter 
box  can  be  bought  from  any  tool  dealer,  but  they  are  quite  ex- 
pensive. 

The  wooden  miter  box  shown  in  this  lesson  is  very  inexpen- 
sive because  it  can  be  made  of  scraps  of  almost  any  kind  of  lum- 
ber. Its  value  depends  upon  its  being  sawed  exactly  on  the  true 
miter  of  45  degrees. 

If  correctly  made,  this  miter  box  will  enable  you  to  construct 
picture  frames,  window  screens,  and  any  other  sort  of  rectangular 
frame. 


References : 


Elements  of  Construction,  King.     American  Book  Co. 

The  A,  B,  C  of  the  Steel  Square,  Hodgson.  The  National  Builder,  Chi- 
cago. 

Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses,  Wm.  Radford.  David  Williams  Co.,  New 
York. 

The  Steel  Square  Pocketbook,  Stoddard.  David  Williams  Co.,  New 
York. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  423,  Forest  Nurseries  for  Schools. 


126 


MITER  BOX 


o-/fofe 




~f  i 

'2 


^ 

*r      5 


A 


I 


(Di  1 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESI6J1 


PICTURE  FRAME  CLAMP 


127 

MITER  BOX  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BOTTOM. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
for  you  to  resurface  it.  Select  the  best  surface  of  the  bottom 
piece  and  mark  it  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2). 
Plane  one  edge  perfectly  straight  and  square  for  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  As  this  piece  of  material  is 
thicker  than  you  have  been  accustomed  to  handling,  you 
will  have  to  take  great  care  to  make  it  perfectly  square. 
Gauge  the  width  on  both  surfaces  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graphs 6  or  7)  and  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Be  sure  that  both 
edges  are  perfectly  square  or  your  work  will  not  assemble  properly. 

THE  SIDE  PIECES. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  one  of  the  side  pieces  and  make  it 
the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  work- 
ing edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  marking  gauge 
or  the  lead  pencil  and  ruler  gauge  the  width,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  6  or  7).  Plane  to  the  gauge 
lines.  Square  one  end  for  a  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
5).  Lay  out  and  cut  the  length.  Prepare  the  other  side  in  like 
manner. 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  two  side  pieces  are  to  be  fastened  with  screws  to  the 
edges  of  the  bottom  piece,  making  the  bottom  edge  perfectly 
even.  In  assembling  this  work  it  would  be  advisable  to  put  in 
one  screw  pretty  close  to  the  end  of  each  side  piece  to  hold  the 
sides  in  proper  position  while  you  lay  out  the  angle  where 
the  miter  box  is  to  be  sawed.  Then  finish  putting  in  the  screws. 
Be  careful  not  to  place  any  of  them  where  they  will  be  in  the  way 
of  the  sawing.  If  you  prefer,  the  miter  box  may  be  assembled 
with  nails  instead  of  screws,  however  it  will  not  be  so  strong. 

LAYING  OUT  THE  ANGLES. 

The  miter  box  should  have  one  perfectly  square  cut.  Lay  it 
out  with  the  large  steel  square,  with  the  large  blade  held  care- 
fully on  one  edge  of  the  box;  with  a  sharp  lead  pencil  lay  out 
a  square  line  across  the  top  edge  of  each  side  piece.  With  the  try- 
square  square  these  lines  down  on  the  sides. 

Lay  out  the  half-pitch  cut  forming  a  letter  "X"  across  the 
box.  Lay  out  the  half -pitch  cut  as  explained  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 


128 

graph  24) .  You  must  make  sure  that  this  is  accurate  or  your 
miter  box  will  be  absolutely  worthless.  When  the  angles  are  laid 
out  on  the  top  edge  of  the  two  side  pieces  with  the  try-square, 
carefully  square  them  down.  Sawing  these  angles  is  the  most 
particular  part  of  your  miter  box  construction.  You  should  saw 
part  way  from  one  side  and  then  turn  the  box  around  and  saw 
from  the  other  side.  In  sawing  from  the  second  side  let  the  point 
of  the  saw  follow  in  the  cut  made  while  sawing  from  the  first 
side.  By  sawing  very  carefully  you  will  be  able  to  follow  the 
lines. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  remove  all  tool  marks  or  rough 
places  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16)  ;  finish  with  sandpaper  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  17).  If  desirable,  the  miter  box  may  be  given 
one  coat  of  shellac.  This  will  keep  it  clean  and  in  good  condition 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57) .  NOTE :  Sometimes  a  miter  box  is 
made  with  one  side  wider  than  the  other;  in  assembling  such  a 
box  the  sides  are  made  even  at  the  top,  thus  allowing  one  side  to 
extend  slightly  below  the  bottom.  This  part  can  be  held  in  the 
vise  or  against  the  edge  of  the  bench  top  to  hold  the  box  solid  when 
in  use. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

PICTURE  FRAME  CLAMP. 

1.  In  assembling  any  kind  of  mitered  frame  a  clamping  de- 
vice is  very  necessary.  In  the  suggestions  you  will  see  the  plan 
for  a  clamp  which  has  a  number  of  advantages.  It  can  be  used  on 
almost  any  sized  picture  frame  by  adjusting  the  hand  screws.  It 
also  affords  an  opportunity  to  resaw  the  miter  joints  if  any  of 
them  require  it. 


129 


PICTURE 
FRAME 

MATERIALS. 

Oak,    plain    or    quartered 

(Chap.  III.,  Par.  29). 

2  pcs.  %"x2"x22"  S  2  S 
2  pcs.  5/8"x2"xl8"  S  2  S 
12-1  Vi"  brads. 
2  screw  eyes,  No.  114. 
Wire  picture  cord,  28". 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Ever  since  pictures  have  been  used  as  a  means  of  decoration 
in  the  home  of  man  the  problem  of  providing  suitable  and  artistic 
frames  for  their  protection  has  been  a  matter  of  much  study.  A 
great  many  men  spend  their  entire  time  making  designs  for  pic- 
ture frames  and  framing  materials. 

It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  give  any  rules  which  would 
serve  as  an  absolute  guide  in  designing  all  kinds  of  picture  frames, 
but  there  are  a  few  general  principles  which  may  be  kept  in  mind. 
Frames  should  not  be  gaudy  nor  over  decorative  so  as  to  detract 
from  the  picture.  They  should  harmonize  in  size  and  color  effect 
with  the  tone  of  the  picture  contained. 

In  order  to  become  expert  in  the  art  of  picture  framing  one 
would  need  to  make  a  very  careful  study  of  interpretation  of  pic- 
tures. 


References : 


Picture  Framing  in  Design  and  Construction  in  Wood,  Noyes.  Manual 
Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 

How  to  Study  Pictures,  Chas.  H.  Caffin.  The  Baker-Taylor  Co.,  New 
York. 

Picture  Study  in  Elementary  Schools,  Wilson.    Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

A  Child's  Guide  to  Pictures,  Chas.  H.  Caffin.  The  Baker-Taylor  Co., 
New  York. 

The  Book  of  Art  for  Young  People,  Conway.  Adam  &  Black,  publish- 
ers, London. 

Famous  Pictures,  Barstow.     The  Century  Co.,  New  York. 

How  to  Enjoy  Pictures,  Emery.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 

Mounting  and  Framing  of  Pictures,  Hasheck.    Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  358,  Second  Primer  of  Forestry. 


5-Voc. 


130 


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131 

PICTURE  FRAME  SPECIFICATIONS 

PREPARING  THE  STOCK. 

Although  your  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  you  to  resurface  it  lightly  with  a  very  sharp  plane.  This 
will  remove  the  marks  of  the  machine  planer  with  which  it  was 
originally  dressed.  Select  the  best  surface  and  smooth  it  as  di- 
rected for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Care- 
fully plane  one  edge  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
4).  With  the  marking  gauge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6),  or  with 
the  ruler  and  pencil  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  7),  gauge  the  width 
on  both  surfaces ;  carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  lines. 

FORMING  THE  RABBETS. 

In  picture  frame  material  it  is  necessary  to  form  a  rabbet  to 
receive  the  glass  and  the  picture.  If  you  have  a  regular  rabbet 
plane,  use  it  for  this  work ;  if  not,  you  may  use  the  grooving  side 
of  your  matching  plane;  that  is  the  side  of  the  plane  which  has 
the  single  blade.  Try  this  on  a  scrap  of  material  until  you  see 
just  how  it  can  be  done;  a  little  experimenting  will  enable  you  to 
do  it  satisfactorily. 

CUTTING  THE  LENGTH  OF  SIDES  AND  ENDS. 

If  you  have  some  special  picture  which  you  desire  to  frame, 
you  should  measure  it  and  cut  the  lengths  of  your  pieces  to  suit  it. 
If  not,  you  may  follow  the  sizes  given  in  the  drawing. 

The  frame  is  to  be  joined  at  the  corners  with  mitered  joints; 
these  are  to  be  cut  in  the  miter  box  which  you  have  made.  If  you 
did  not  make  the  miter  box  ana  there  is  one  provided  in  the  shop, 
you  may  use  it  or  lay  out  the  half  pitch  cut  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 25)  and  then  saw  this  angle  by  hand.  This  will  be  a  little 
difficult,  but  if  you  are  careful  you  can  do  it  perfectly.  After  lay- 
ing out  the  half-pitch  cut  once  it  is  well  to  set  the  T-bevel  to  this 
angle  and  lay  out  the  other  pieces  from  the  T-bevel.  Remember, 
that  in  a  rectangular  frame  opposite  sides  must  be  exactly  the  same 
length.  The  least  variation  will  throw  the  frame  out  of  square  and 
ruin  the  joints. 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  joints  are  to  be  assembled  with  brads  driven  through  the 
outside  corners.  This  must  be  done  with  extreme  care;  you  must 
not  attempt  to  use  large  brads  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  21). 
NOTE  :  Before  attempting  to  nail  together  the  joints  of  the  picture 
frame,  lay  it  flat  on  your  bench  top  or  some  other  level  surface  to 
make  sure  that  the  joints  will  fit.  This  will  determine  whether 


132 

opposite  sides  are  exactly  the  same  length  and  whether  the  joints 
are  cut  at  a  perfect  half -pitch. 

Sometimes  in  assembling  a  mitered  frame  mechanics  nail  to- 
gether three  joints,  and  if  the  last  joint  does  not  quite  fit,  they 
bring  it  as  close  together  as  possible,  clamp  it  on  the  bench  top 
with  a  scrap  board  under  it  and  saw  through  the  joint.  The  clamp 
holds  the  material  from  slipping,  and  the  sawing  through  the  joint 
makes  it  fit ;  it  can  then  be  brought  together  perfectly. 

NOTE :  In  the  miter  box  lesson  a  very  excellent  clamp  for  as- 
sembling frames  is  shown.  This  clamp  makes  it  possible  for  a 
saw  cut  to  be  made  in  any  joint  that  may  require  it. 

FINISHING. 

After  the  frame  is  assembled,  with  a  very  sharp  steel  scraper 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16),  carefully  smooth  the  outside  sur- 
face; smooth  all  of  the  joints  perfectly.  If  desirable,  the  outside 
corners  of  the  frame  may  be  slightly  rounded  or  chamfered  to  suit 
your  taste.  With  a  piece  of  fine  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
17),  carefully  smooth  all  of  the  surfaces.  Stain  the  frame  a  desir- 
able color  to  correspond  with  the  picture  with  which  it  is  to  be 
used  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54).  The  picture  frame  should  be 
given  a  coat  of  filler  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  55) ;  one  or  two  coats 
of  shellac  may  be  substituted,  if  you  do  not  have  the  filler.  Finish 
with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57)  or  with  wax  (Chapter 
IV.,  Paragraph  56). 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

FLY  SCREEN. 

1.  The  principle  of  a  rectangular  frame,  assembled  with  plain 
mitered  joints,  is  frequently  and  practically  applied  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  window  screen.     Measure  a  window  at  home  and 
make  a  screen  for  it ;  stock  ?/8"x2"  or  21/4"  is  heavy  enough  for  an 
average  sized  screen ;  any  kind  of  soft  wood  is  suitable ;  join  with 
corrugated  nails ;  after  the  screen  wire  is  tacked  on,  trim  with  thin 
strips  or  flat  moulding. 

HALL  RACK. 

2.  A  very  attractive  hall  rack  may  be  constructed  on  almost 
exactly  the  same  principles  as  the  picture  frame ;  it  should  be  made 
considerably  heavier,  and  might  have  two  or  more  cross  mullions. 
The  central  frame  should  contain  a  mirror;  artistic  hooks  of  a  de- 
sirable size  and  design  should  be  properly  placed  on  the  frame  and 
mullions. 


133 

DISHCLOTH  RACK 

MATERIALS. 

Poplar  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  42)  or  any 
strong  wood. 

1  pc.    5/8"x6i/2"x  7"  S  2  S  Back. 

2  pcs.  5/8"x3     "x  7"  S  2  S  Top  and  bot- 

tom. 

5  pcs.  7/8"x  %"x21"  S  4  S  Hanger. 
1  pair  tight  pin  hinges   l%"xl"    (with 

screws) . 

6-1%"  No.  10  R.  H.  blue  screws. 
1  screen  door  hook  and  eye. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Standards  of  cleanliness  and  sanitation  demand  that  dish- 
cloths should  be  properly  cared  for  by  being  washed  and  dried. 
This  means  that  some  convenient  method  should  be  provided  for 
thoroughly  airing  and  drying  the  dishcloths.  The  old-time  method 
of  stretching  a  line  across  the  room  did  the  work  very  satisfac- 
torily but  was  extremely  inconvenient. 

This  dishcloth  rack  provides  the  means  of  hanging  dishcloths 
in  good  condition  and  yet  does  not  take  up  unnecessary  room,  be- 
cause it  can  be  unhooked  and  allowed  to  hang  down  out  of  the  way 
when  not  in  use.  This  rack  should  be  hung  on  the  wall  near  the 
stove  or  heat  pipe. 


References : 


Home-Made  Fireless  Cooker,  U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  296. 

How  to  Make  an  Ice  Box,  Radford's  Details  of  Construction.     Radford 

Architectural  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
North  American  Forests  and  Forestry,  Brucken.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 


134 


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DISHCLOTH  RACK 


SUGGESTIONS  FOP  ORIGINAL  PES16N 


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135 

DISH  CLOTH  RACK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BACK. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  the  back  piece,  and  mark  this  the 
working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2) ,  as  it  is  already  S  2  S  you 
will  not  need  to  resurface  it.  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  4).  Lay  out  the  design  for  the  back  (if  you  care 
to,  you  may  make  an  original  design  for  this  piece)  and  saw  it  out; 
carefully  plane  all  of  the  edges,  making  them  perfectly  square. 
Locate  and  bore  the  hole  for  the  hanging  screw  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 9) ;  if  desired,  two  screws  may  be  used  in  order  to  hold  the 
back  perfectly  solid ;  they  should  be  placed  one  above  the  other  so 
as  to  strike  a  stud  when  fastened  to  the  wall. 

THE  TOP  AND  BOTTOM  PIECES. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  the  top  piece  and  mark  it  the  work- 
ing face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Carefully  plane  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  With  the  compasses  set  at  the 
proper  radius ;  lay  out  the  shape  of  the  top  piece.  In  like  manner 
lay  out  the  bottom  piece.  With  the  coping  or  compass  saw,  saw 
just  outside  the  line.  With  a  sharp  block  plane,  or  wood  file,  make 
these  edges  perfectly  smooth  and  square  with  the  working  face. 
Notice  that  the  length  of  the  bottom  piece  must  be  exactly  the 
same  as  the  width  of  the  back  piece  to  which  it  is  to  be  fastened 
with  hinges.  Hinge  the  bottom  piece  onto  the  back,  as  illustrated 
in  the  drawing.  In  setting  a  hinge,  a  gain  should  be  cut  in  each 
piece  deep  enough  to  receive  the  hinge  leaf,  so  it  will  be  level  with 
the  wood. 

THE  HANGER  STRIPS. 

You  will  probably  have  to  rip  these  strips  from  stock.  To  do 
this,  select  a  working  face  on  your  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
2) ,  plane  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4) ;  gauge  the 
desired  width  on  both  surfaces  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6) .  Rip 
just  outside  the  gauge  lines,  and  plane  to  the  lines.  In  like  man- 
ner rip  out  and  plane  the  required  number  of  strips.  In  prepar- 
ing one  of  the  hanger  strips,  first  plane  it  perfectly  square,  the  de- 
sired size  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3  and  4) ,  then  plane  it  to  the 
proper  taper.  With  the  lead  pencil  and  finger,  gauge  for  the  cham- 
fer on  each  corner  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8).  As  the  chamfer 
does  not  extend  the  full  length  of  the  strip,  you  cannot  complete  it 
with  the  plane.  You  will  have  to  use  a  pocketknife  or  drawing- 


136 

knife.  Chamfer  all  of  the  corners  equally  so  the  end  will  be  an 
octagon  in  shape.  Be  sure  to  leave  the  corners  distinct  and 
straight.  In  like  manner  prepare  all  the  hanger  strips.  Near  the 
larger  end  of  each  hanger  strip  bore  holes  for  the  screws  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  9).  Be  sure  the  holes  for  the  screws  are  large 
enough  to  allow  the  screws  to  pass  through  freely. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Notice  that  the  center  hanger  strip  is  to  be  made  stationary 
by  having  two  screws.  Each  of  the  other  strips  will  have  but  one 
screw.  Fasten  the  center  strip  first,  then  place  the  other  strips 
in  position  and  lay  out  for  the  boring.  Bore  through  the  top  with 
the  same  sized  bit  with  which  you  bored  through  the  hanger  strips. 
Use  a  smaller  bit  to  bore  in  the  bottom  piece,  for  the  screws  must 
tighten  in  it.  After  all  the  work  is  assembled,  make  sure  that  all 
the  strips  will  spread  easily.  If  they  will  not,  remove  the  screws, 
and  very  slightly  plane  any  of  the  strips  which  are  too  tight. 
When  raised  ready  for  use,  the  rack  is  to  be  held  in  position  by 
a  small  hook  and  screw  eye,  as  shown  in  the  drawing;  this  hook 
should  be  sufficiently  tight  to  hold  the  hangers  rigid  in  a  hori- 
zontal position;  it  may  be  tightened  or  loosened  by  turning  the 
screw  eye.  It  will  require  careful  work  to  get  this  project  proper- 
ly assembled.  You  may  have  to  experiment  and  adjust  it  some- 
what. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16),  wood  file 
and  sandpaper,  remove  all  pencil  or  tool  marks ;  see  that  the  work 
is  perfectly  smooth  all  over.  It  should  be  finished  with  shellac 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

WASH  CLOTH  RACK. 

1.  Suggestion  No.  1  shows  a  very  convenient  plan  of  construct- 
ing a  hanger  which  is  particularly  suited  to  the  lavatory  for  a 
wash  cloth  rack.    For  this  purpose  it  should  be  finished  with  white 
enamel. 

DISH  TOWEL  RACK. 

2.  No.  2  in  the  suggestion  presents  a  simple  plan  for  a  folding 
rack.     This  will  be  particularly  suitable  in  places  where  room  is 
limited.    It  should  be  made  of  hard  wood  and  neatly  finished. 


137 


BOOK  SHELVES 

MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48)  or  Oak, 

plain  or  quartered  (Chap. 

III.,  Par.  29). 

5  pcs.  %"x734"x33"  S2S  Shelves. 

2  pcs.  %"x73/4"x52"  S  2  S  Sides. 

3  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

To  insure  proper  protection  and  arrangement  of  books,  they 
should  be  kept  in  some  sort  of  bookcase  or  shelves.  Since  a  book- 
case is  rather  expensive,  a  very  satisfactory  substitute  can  be 
provided  by  neatly  made  shelves.  If  desired  these  shelves  may 
be  provided  with  curtain  rods  and  a  curtain  to  protect  the  books 
from  the  dust. 

While  cabinet  wood  is  preferable  for  this  purpose,  yet  if  the 
workmanship  is  carefully  executed  a  very  satisfactory  shelf  can 
be  made  from  soft  wood,  particularly  of  yellow  pine.  The  stain 
and  finish  should  be  made  to  correspond  with  the  other  furniture 
of  the  room  in  which  the  shelves  are  to  be  placed. 


References : 


Easy  to  Make  Furniture,  Crater  and  Holt.  The  National  Builder,  Chi- 
cago, 111. 

Woodworking  for  Amateur  Craftsmen.  The  National  Builder,  Chicago, 
111. 

Bench  Work  in  Wood,  Goss.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Wood  and  Forest,  Noyes.     Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 


138 


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139 

BOOK  SHELVES  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SIDES. 

Select  the  best  surface  and  mark  it  the  working  face  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4.)  On  a  long  piece  of  material  of  this  kind 
planing  the  edges  will  require  very  careful  work.  With  the  mark- 
ing gauge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  6),  or  with  the  pencil  and  ruler 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  7),  gauge  the  width  of  the  side  pieces  on 
both  surfaces;  carefully  plane  to  the  gauge  lines.  Be  sure  that 
all  edges  are  perfectly  square.  In  like  manner  prepare  the  second 
side  piece. 

Lay  out  the  bottom  and  top  ends  of  one  side  piece,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing,  or  according  to  your  own  design.  If  you  use  an 
original  design,  first  draw  it  on  paper,  then  lay  it  out  on  your  ma- 
terial. Carefully  saw  just  outside  the  lines.  With  a  wood  file 
and  block  plane  finish  the  edges,  making  them  perfectly  square 
and  smooth.  Make  the  second  side  just  like  the  first. 

Lay  out  the  spaces  for  the  shelves  with  the  try-square ;  square 
these  lines  across  the  working  face ;  lay  out  the  gains  on  each  side 
piece  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  61).  The  width  of  the  gains  is  de- 
termined by  the  thickness  of  the  shelves,  for  they  must  fill  the 
gains  snugly.  It  is  well  to  lay  out  the  gains  a  very  little  smaller 
than  required,  so  you  may  thin  the  ends  of  the  shelves  slightly 
with  a  steel  scraper,  if  necessary,  in  assembling.  Use  this  piece 
as  a  pattern  in  laying  out  the  gains  on  the  other  side  piece.  These 
gains  must  be  exactly  the  same  distance  apart,  or  the  shelves  will 
not  be  level  when  the  work  is  assembled. 

THE  SHELVES. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  one  shelf,  and  mark  it  the  working 
face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge  for  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Gauge  the  width  on  both  sur- 
faces (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  6  or  7)  ;  carefully  plane  to  the 
gauge  lines;  square  one  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Lay  out 
and  cut  the  length,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing.  Prepare  all  the 
shelves  in  the  same  manner.  If  you  desire  you  may  change  the 
length  to  suit  your  needs,  but  be  sure  all  the  shelves  are  exactly 
the  same  length. 

SURFACING. 

Before  the  work  is  assembled,  each  piece  should  be  carefully 
resurfaced  with  a  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  thin  shaving.  This 


140 

will  remove  the  marks  left  by  the  planing  mill.  All  surfaces  must 
then  be  finished  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper  to  remove  plane  marks 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16)  ;  the  final  smoothing  should  be  done 
with  very  fine  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17). 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  finishing  nails  driven 
through  the  outside  surface  of  the  side  pieces.  Be  very  careful 
not  to  bruise  the  material.  The  nails  should  be  uniformly  spaced 
so,  if  the  places  where  they  are  driven  show,  they  will  not  mar 
the  appearance  of  your  work.  Use  the  hammer  as  shown  in  Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  21.  With  a  nail  set  drive  all  nails  slightly  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  wood.  The  holes  may  be  filled  with  putty, 
colored  to  match  the  stain  you  intend  to  use;  or  by  careful  work 
you  may  be  able  to  cover  them  satisfactorily  by  putting  a  tiny 
drop  of  glue  in  each  hole  and  sandpapering  over  it,  allowing  the 
wood  dust  to  mix  with  the  glue  and  fill  the  hole. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  piece  of  fine  sandpaper  remove  all  pencil  and  tool 
marks.  Stain  the  desired  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54).  If 
your  book  shelves  are  made  of  oak,  a  filler  should  be  used  (Chap- 
ter IV.,  Paragraph  55).  Finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Para- 
graph 57),  wax  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  56),  or  varnish.  (Chap- 
ter IV.,  Paragraph  58). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

PANTRY  SHELVES. 

1.  The  plan  of  shelf  construction  presented  in  this  lesson  is 
very  suitable  for  the  construction  of  shelves  in  the  pantry.     The 
length  and  spacing  of  the  shelves  should  be  determined  by  local 
conditions. 

HARDWARE  CABINET. 

2.  For  small  hardware,  such  as  nails,  screws  and  sundries,  a 
very  simple  but  serviceable  cabinet  may  be  prepared  by  construct- 
ing a  series  of  shelves  on  the  plan  given  in  this  lesson.     For  the 
sake  of  economy,  discarded  cigar  boxes  could  be  used  for  drawers, 
the  shelves  being  conveniently  spaced  to  suit  them. 


141 

SLED 


MATERIALS. 
Poplar  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  42) 


2  pcs.  s^-xS^/'xSG"  S  2  S 
Runners. 

2  pcs.  l"x2"xlli/2"  S2S 
Cross  braces. 

Ipc.  3/8"x9i/2"x22"  S2S 
Top. 

4-6d  finishing  nails. 
_  1  dozen  11/4"  brads. 

2  pcs.  5/16"x40"  soft  iron 
rod  or  2  pcs.  %"x40" 
strap  iron  for  soles. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  sled  represents  one  of  the  earliest  used  and  simplest 
methods  of  hauling".  Wherever  there  is  snow  the  sled  is  used  in 
a  great  many  ways.  Perhaps  its  most  important  use  is  in  the  lum- 
ber regions,  where  it  provides  an  easy  means  of  hauling  immense 
loads  of  logs.  The  sled  also  furnishes  a  great  means  of  sport  and 
it  has  a  number  of  modifications,  such  as  skees,  toboggans  and 
the  common  hand  sled,  with  which  every  boy  is  familiar. 


References : 


Library  of  Work  and  Play,  Foster. 

Scientific  American  Boy  at  School,  A.  Russel  Bond. 

A  Back  Yard  Toboggan  Slide,  The  Boy  Craftsman,  Hall.     Lathrop,  Lee 

&  Shepard,  Boston. 
Winter  Sports,  Library  of  Work  and  Play,  Miller.     Doubleday,  Page  & 

Co.,  New  York. 
Boy's  Book  of  Sports  and  Outdoor  Life,  Thompson.     The  Century  Co., 

New  York. 
Ice  Boats,  Sleds  and  Toboggans,  Scientific  American  Boy,  Bond.     Munn 

&  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Outdoor  Handy  Book  for  Playground,  Beard.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons, 

New  York. 


142 


Bl—  ^r/sf-  -H*S 

rr.il'f  //i/^Jiri 

ffii*"i"~~/qr>fc 


35f- 


^ 


SLED 


. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGH 


i  Bos  COASTER 


ra 


B 


HEAVY  PRAY  OR  FARM  SLEP 


143 

SLED  SPECIFICATIONS 

RUNNERS. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
for  you  to  replane  it.  Select  the  best  surface  of  one  piece  and 
mark  it  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one 
edge  perfectly  straight  for  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 4).  Gauge  the  width  of  the  runners  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graphs 6  or  7).  Plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Lay  out  the  shape  of 
the  front  and  of  the  rear  curves ;  with  the  coping  or  compass  saw 
saw  just  outside  these  lines.  Smooth  the  edges  with  a  block  plane 
and  wood  file;  make  the  edges  perfectly  square.  In  like  manner 
make  the  second  runner. 

Lay  out  the  mortises  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  67)  for  the 
cross  braces.  These  mortises  should  be  laid  out  on  both  surfaces 
of  each  runner  so  you  may  chisel  part  way  from  one  side,  and 
the  remainder  from  the  other  side.  Be  very  careful  not  to  get 
the  mortises  too  wide;  the  thickness  of  the  cross  braces  must  fill 
them  snugly.  Lay  out  the  holes  for  the  hand  holds.  To  make  the 
hand  holes,  bore  two  holes  with  the  %"  or  1"  bit  the  proper  dis- 
tance apart  to  make  the  hole  the  desired  length ;  with  the  compass 
saw  saw  from  one  hole  to  the  other,  and  smooth  with  the  wood 
file. 

THE  CROSS  BRACES. 

Square  the  stock  for  one  of  the  cross  braces  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraphs  2,  3  and  4).  Lay  out  the  tenon  (Chapter  V.,  Para- 
graph 67)  the  exact  size  of  the  mortise  which  you  have  cut  in  the 
runner.  Form  the  tenon  by  sawing  just  outside  the  gauge  line 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  14)  ;  make  a  tenon  on  each  end.  Prepare 
the  second  brace  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first.  Be  sure  the 
braces  are  exactly  the  same  length  between  shoulders. 

THE  TOP. 

The  top  is  to  be  made  of  one  wide  board,  although  it  may  be 
made  of  strips  if  preferred.  If  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  resurface  this  piece  of  material.  Plane  one  edge  per- 
fectly straight  and  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  With  the 
pencil  and  ruler,  gauge  the  width  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  7)  ; 
plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Lay  out  the  desired  curves  for  the  two 
ends.  Saw  them  out  with  the  coping  or  compass  saw,  and  smooth 
the  edges  with  the  wood  file. 


144 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  the  sled  by  driving  the  cross  braces  into  the  mor- 
tises, and  fastening  each  with  a  nail  driven  through  the  top  edge 
of  the  runner  into  the  tenon.  Space  the  top  properly  on  the  cross 
braces,  and  with  small  nails,  nail  down  through  the  top  into  each 
cross  brace.  Space  the  nails  uniformly  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
21). 

THE  SOLES. 

The  soles  of  this  sled  are  to  be  made  of  round  iron  rods.  Flat 
soles  are  sometimes  used,  but  the  round  soles  are  preferable  if 
carefully  put  on.  With  a  gouge  or  chisel,  slightly  groove  the  rear, 
and  also  the  front  curved  portion  of  each  runner.  You  should  also 
groove  the  top  edge  of  each  runner  where  the  short  turn  of  the 
iron  lies.  Bend  the  rods  the  desired  shape;  this  can  be  done  by  a 
little  careful  work  with  a  hammer  and  vise.  When  the  rods  are 
the  desired  shape  they  will  be  held  in  position  by  the  grooves 
which  you  have  just  cut  in  the  runners.  NOTE :  Flat  strap  iron 
may  be  used  for  the  soles,  if  you  prefer ;  it  should  be  fastened  with 
screws.  Bore  a  %"  hole  in  the  front  of  each  runner  to  fasten  the 
rope.  Sometimes  a  round  cross  rail  is  put  in  the  front  of  a  sled 
at  this  place.  It  is  usually  undesirable  in  a  coasting  sled,  but  if 
you  care  for  it,  it  may  be  put  in  at  the  time  the  sled  is  assembled 
by  having  it  prepared  and  the  holes  bored. 

FINISHING. 

Paint  or  stain  the  sled  the  desired  color.  This  will  add  to  its 
beauty  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52).  As  a  sled  is  exposed  to  con- 
siderable moisture,  paint  is  the  most  serviceable  finish.  However, 
a  good  oil  stain  will  be  satisfactory.  An  enamel  paint  will  give  a 
beautiful  and  lasting  finish. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

BOB  COASTER. 

1.  The  bob  coaster  shown  in  the  first  suggestion  affords  an 
opportunity  of  employing  the  sled  principle  in  a  very  elaborate 
project.  However,  there  is  none  of  the  construction  that  is  par- 
ticularly difficult.  The  steering  device  should  be  made  of  iron 
pipe.  It  may  be  necessary  to  have  this  part  of  the  work  made  at 
a  plumber's  shop.  The  rest  of  the  project  will  be  very  clear  from 
the  drawing. 


145 

SAWHORSE 


MATERIALS. 

Beech  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  32)  or 
any  hard  wood. 

1  pc.    li/2"x334"x36i/2"     S2S 
Saddle. 

4  pcs.    7/8"x33/4"x25"         S2S 

Legs. 

2  pcs.    7/8"x5i/2"x  9"         S  2  S 
Braces. 

24-li/2"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  sawhorse,  sometimes  called  a  trestle  bench,  is  used  to 
hold  material  in  a  convenient  position  for  sawing  or  for  assem- 
bling work.  In  handling  long  boards,  usually  two  trestles  of  the 
same  height  are  used.  They  should  be  perfectly  rigid  so  as  to 
hold  the  material  solid  while  the  work  is  being  done. 

The  sawhorse  shown  in  this  lesson  is  a  convenient  size  for 
shop  use.  By  observing  the  picture  you  will  note  that  there  is  a 
little  notch  block  fastened  on  the  sawhorse  near  one  end ;  this  is  to 
serve  as  a  substitute  for  a  vise  when  you  wish  to  do  planing.  If 
you  do  not  have  a  work  bench  at  home  you  can  easily  make  a 
sawhorse  like  this  and  thus  be  able  to  do  a  great  many  pieces  of 
work  about  your  home.  If  properly  cared  for  it  should  be  serv- 
iceable for  many  years. 


References : 


The  Young  Mechanic,  John  Lukin.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 
The  Jack  of  All  Trades,  D.  C.  Beard.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 
Practical  Forestry,  Fuller. 


146 


SAW  HORSE. 


—36" 


Screws 


h iff H 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGIML  PESIGH 


A 


No.l 

SUITABLE  FOR  LONG  HORSE 


No.2 

NOTCHED  LEG  ADDS  STRENGTH 


147 

SAW  HORSE  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SADDLE. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
resurface  it.  Select  the  best  surface,  and  mark  it  the  working  face 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  square 
Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Gauge  the  width  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graphs 6  or  7)  and  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Square  one  end  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  5) .  Measure,  and  cut  the  length.  The  gains  to 
receive  the  legs  should  not  be  laid  out  until  after  the  legs  have  been 
made. 

THE  LEGS. 

If  the  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
resurface  the  legs.  Plane  one  edge  perfectly  square  for  a  working 
edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Gauge  the  width  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  6) ;  plane  to  the  gauge  line.  Cut  the  length  about  25" 
long  (this  will  give  a  chance  to  recut  the  legs  after  the  work  is 
assembled) . 

CUTTING  GAINS  IN  THE  SADDLE. 

The  gains  are  to  be  cut  in  the  saddle  to  receive  the  legs.  These 
should  be  cut  so  the  legs  will  fit  them  perfectly.  Hold  one  leg  at 
the  proper  slant  (this  is  a  matter  for  your  judgment,  after  a  study 
of  the  drawing)  and  set  the  T-bevel.  With  the  T-bevel  lay  out  the 
gains  on  the  saddle.  Gauge  the  depth  of  the  gain  on  the  top  face 
of  the  saddle.  Notice  that  on  the  bottom  face  of  the  saddle  the 
gains  lose  their  depth  and  come  just  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  mate-, 
rial.  Saw  to  these  lines,  and  with  a  sharp  chisel  carefully  cut 
away  the  wood.  In  like  manner  prepare  all  the  gains. 

ASSEMBLING  THE  LEGS  AND  SADDLE. 

Fasten  the  legs  in  place  by  means  of  screws.  The  holes  in  the 
legs  should  be  large  enough  to  receive  the  body  of  the  screws 
freely,  but  not  loosely.  Countersink  the  holes  so  the  heads  of  the 
screws  will  come  level  with  the  surface. 

THE  BRACES. 

Prepare  the  stock  for  the  braces  the  proper  width  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4).  Spread  one  pair  of  legs  to  their  proper 
position,  and  be  sure  that  both  legs  stand  at  exactly  the  same 
angle  with  the  saddle.  Hold  a  piece  of  the  brace  material  in  posi- 
tion, and  mark  its  shape  by  running  a  lead  pencil  along  the  outside 


148 

of  each  leg.  With  the  T-bevel,  test  these  two  lines  to  make  sure 
they  are  the  same  angle;  if  they  are  not  exactly  the  same,  make 
them  so,  and  set  the  T-bevel.  Saw  out  the  two  braces,  making 
them  exactly  alike.  Bore  holes  for  the  screws  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 9) . 

In  fastening  the  braces  in  position,  regulate  the  angle  of  the 
legs  so  they  exactly  fit  the  braces.  NOTE:  With  a  keen  block 
plane,  plane  the  ends  of  the  braces  until  they  are  exactly  even  with 
the  outside  of  the  legs.  There  may  be  some  little  variation.  Also 
saw  off  the  top  of  the  legs  exactly  even  with  the  top  of  the  saddle, 
and  finish  with  a  block  plane.  Set  the  saw  horse  on  a  level  floor, 
and  with  a  pair  of  compasses,  or  with  a  ruler  and  lead  pencil,  mark 
a  line  parallel  with  the  floor  entirely  around  each  leg;  saw  off  the 
bottom  of  the  legs  to  this  line. 

NOTCH  BLOCK. 

The  notched  block  on  the  top  of  the  saw  horse  is  not  neces- 
sary for  sawing  purposes,  but  is  quite  convenient  for  holding  small 
pieces  of  material  for  planing  and  other  tool  operations. 

For  shop  work  saw  horses  are  often  used  in  pairs.  However, 
the  one  horse  will  give  very  good  satisfaction  for  small  work  be- 
cause the  saddle  is  wide. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16),  or  sandpa- 
per, remove  all  pencil  and  tool  marks  from  the  work,  and  finish 
'with  a  coat  of  shellac  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  57). 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

TABLE  TRESTLE. 

1.  The  plan  of  making  a  trestle,  as  shown  in  Suggestion 
No.  1,  will  be  very  suitable  as  a  support  for  a  portable  table.  The 
height  may  be  determined  by  individual  needs.  A  pair  of  such 
trestles,  with  a  wide  board  top,  will  afford  a  convenient  portable 
table  for  picnics,  lawn  parties  or  outdoor  home  canning  work. 

NOTE:  There  is  almost  no  limit  to  the  application  of  this 
trestle  principle.  It  may  be  used  in  the  construction  of  temporary 
stages  and  platforms,  movable  laboratory  equipment,  and  many 
other  purposes  about  the  home  and  school. 


149 


HATCHET  AND 
HAMMER 
HANDLES 

MATERIALS. 

Hickory    (Chap.    III.,   Par. 

39). 

1  pc.   ll/8"  x  !<%"  x  14i/2" 
rough  (split). 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Everybody  is  more  or  less  familiar  with  the  use  of  a  ham- 
mer, for  there  is  possibly  no  one  tool  which  is  so  generally  em- 
ployed in  all  kinds  of  work.  The  handle  is  usually  the  first  part 
of  the  hammer  to  wear  out  or  break,  and  while  a  new  handle  can 
be  purchased  at  a  very  reasonable  price,  yet  it  is  quite  convenient 
for  a  boy  to  be  able  to  make  a  hammer  handle.  Most  hammer 
handles  are  broken  by  carelessness  or  abuse;  this  is  not  likely  to 
occur  if  one  has  had  the  experience  of  making  a  few  handles. 

Hammer  handles  should  be  made  of  clear,  straight-grained 
hickory,  and  if  the  material  is  properly  selected  a  hand-shaved 
handle  is  usually  far  superior  to  the  machine-made  handles  which 
are  on  the  market. 


References : 


U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  347,  The  Repair  of  Farm  Equipment. 
The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses,  Stories  of  Industries.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
The  Repair  of  Farm  Equipment,  Scientific  Am.,  June  5,  1909. 
Farm  Conveniences.     Orange-Judd  Co.,  New  York. 


150 


HAMMER     HANDLE 


HtV 


H 


!«-  -3--4 


-t 
T" 


t?4" 


£-"-"3    w- 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESI6H 


I 


Sole  Leather 


Afe/ 

CHISEL  HANDLE 


F/LE  HANDLE 


No.  3 

MALLET 


151 

HATCHET  AND  HAMMER  HANDLE 
SPECIFICATIONS 

The  material  for  your  hammer,  or  hatchet  handle,  is  rough  on 
all  sides,  because  it  is  split  out  of  the  log.  The  purpose  in  furnish- 
ing split  material  is  that  you  may  get  your  handle  perfectly  straight 
grained.  The  hammer  handle  cannot  be  laid  out  with  a  marking 
gauge  and  try-square  in  the  same  way  that  you  lay  out  most  pieces 
of  work,  because  the  completed  handle  does  not  have  straight  and 
parallel  edges.  If  you  have  a  drawing  knife  in  the  shop,  it  will  be 
found  the  most  convenient  tool  with  which  to  do  most  of  the  cut- 
ting. 

It  would  be  well  to  square  this  stock  to  the  largest  size  shown 
in  the  drawing  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  1,  2,  3,  4).  In  any  kind 
of  shaved  work  you  must  be  very  careful  not  to  cut  against  the 
grain,  or  the  wood  will  tear  and  be  very  rough.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  making  a  handle.  After  you  get  the  stock  squared,  so  it  is 
thick  enough  for  the  thickest  dimension  of  the  drawing,  and  wide 
enough  for  the  widest  place,  you  should  then  block  it  out  with  the 
drawing  knife  or  plane,  or  pocket  knife,  by  cutting  away  the  cor- 
ners and  making  it  approach  the  shape  of  the  handle.  You  must 
be  very  careful  not  to  cut  it  too  small  at  any  point,  or  to  allow  any 
of  the  shavings  to  cut  in  too  deeply  by  following  the  grain. 

Making  the  final  shape  of  the  handle  is  largely  a  matter  of 
judgment,  and  you  will  show  your  skill  by  shaving  out  the  handle 
to  the  desired  shape,  and  bringing  it  to  the  dimensions  at  all  of  the 
points  shown  in  the  drawing. 

FINISHING. 

After  you  have  made  the  shape  of  the  handle,  and  have  it 
almost  the  desired  dimensions,  it  should  be  finished  with  a  sharp 
steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16) ;  it  may  be  scraped  with 
a  pocket  knife,  or  a  piece  of  glass.  The  purpose  of  the  scraping  is 
to  remove  all  marks  made  by  the  cutting  tools,  and  to  make  the 
surface  perfectly  smooth  all  over.  In  the  scraping  process  it  may 
be  necessary  to  scrape  part  way  from  one  direction,  and  the  re- 
mainder from  the  other  direction,  to  avoid  tearing  the  grain.  The 
final  smoothing  should  be  done  with  fine  sandpaper,  sandpapering 
the  direction  of  the  grain.  After  it  is  completed  give  it  a  good 
coating  of  linseed  oil. 


152 
FITTING  THE  HANDLE  INTO  THE  HAMMER  OR  HATCHET. 

The  handle  should  be  carefully  shaved,  and  fitted  into  the 
eye  of  the  hammer  or  hatchet,  whichever  it  may  be.  In  shaving 
the  handle,  make  it  fit  the  eye  snugly  at  all  points,  taper  it  suffi- 
ciently so  that  it  will  reach  through  the  eye  and  extend  a  little  on 
the  other  side.  After  it  has  been  well  fitted,  and  driven  in  per- 
fectly tight,  examine  it  carefully  to  be  sure  that  the  hammer  or 
hatchet  hangs  properly  on  the  handle.  Then  either  split  or  saw 
the  end  of  the  handle  which  extends,  and  drive  in  hard  wood 
wedges  to  hold  it  securely  in  position.  Saw  the  handle  off  even 
with  the  tool,  and  finish  smoothly  with  a  wood  file.  The  other  end 
of  the  handle  may  be  sawed  and  slightly  rounded,  and  smoothed 
with  the  wood  file  and  sandpaper.  When  the  handle  is  entirely  fin- 
ished, it  should  have  a  final  coating  of  linseed  oil.  An  occasional 
coat  of  linseed  oil  on  hammer  handles  will  cause  them  to  wear 
smoothly. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

MATTOCK  OR  PICK  HANDLE. 

1.  The  principle  of  the  shaved  handle  can  be  applied  to  a  great 
number  of  tools  about  the  shop,  home  or  farm.    The  mattock  or  pick 
handle  is  almost  identical  with  the  hammer  handle,  except  in  size. 

CHISEL  OR  FILE  HANDLE. 

2.  A  very  excellent  chisel  or  file  handle  may  be  hand-shaved. 
The  size  and  detail  of  shape  are  largely  matters  of  personal  taste. 

HOE  OR  RAKE  HANDLE. 

3.  The  hoe  or  rake  handle  differs  from  the  other  handle  prob- 
lem but  little,  except  in  length. 


153 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COMMUNITY  RESEARCH. 

No.  1.  Are  there  any  mills  of  any  kind  run  by  water  power 
anywhere  in  your  community?  Make  inquiry  and  find  out  some 
of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  connected  with  the  use  of 
water  power. 

No.  2.  What  kind  of  flowers  should  be  selected  for  a  window 
flower  box?  What  kind  of  dirt  would  you  select  and  how  would 
you  prepare  it  for  a  window  flower  box? 

No.  3.  Visit  a  shop  or  hardware  store  and  examine  a  patent 
miter  box.  What  advantage  does  this  miter  box  have  over  the 
wood  miter  box  which  you  made  in  the  shop?  How  does  it  com- 
pare with  your  handmade  box  in  price? 

No.  4.  Examine  the  picture  frames  in  your  home  and  see  if 
you  can  tell  of  what  kind  of  wood  they  are  made.  How  are  the- 
joints  made? 

No.  5.  Visit  a  carpenter's  or  cabinet-maker's  shop  and  ask 
the  man  in  charge  to  show  you  the  different  kinds  of  planes  which 
he  uses.  You  may  be  able  to  find  some  of  the  old-fashioned  wood 
stock  planes  in  your  community.  By  inquiry  from  some  of  the 
carpenters,  find  out  what  advantages  modern  all-steel  planes  have 
over  the  old-fashioned  wooden  planes. 

No.  6.  For  what  practical  purposes  have  you  seen  sleds  used 
in  your  neighborhood?  Which  will  run  more  easily  on  snow,  a 
sled  or  a  wagon?  Discuss  this  matter  with  some  of  the  teamsters 
in  your  community  and  get  their  opinions. 

No.  7.  Make  a  very  careful  search  about  your  home  to  see 
how  many  articles  you  can  find  which  are  made  of  hickory;  ex- 
amine each  one  carefully  and  explain  why  hickory  is  selected  for 
that  particular  purpose.  Do  you  know  of  any  objections  to  the 
use  of  hickory  for  frame  material  in  a  house? 

No.  8.  At  what  season  of  the  year  should  shade  trees  be 
trimmed?  From  the  study  of  the  references  and  inquiries  which 
you  may  make  of  practical  men,  what  do  you  think  would  be  the 
result  of  trimming  shade  trees  very  closely  during  the  hot,  dry 
summer  months? 

No.  9.  Examine  the  ironing  board  used  in  your  home  to  see 
whether  it  folds  easily.  If  you  find  any  faults  in  its  construction, 
remedy  them. 

No.  10.  Visit  an  art  store  or  gallery  and  study  the  pictures ; 
note  the  kind  of  frames  used  on  the  different  pictures.  Ask  the 
person  in  charge  to  explain  why  different  types  of  frames  are 
used  on  certain  pictures. 


154 
REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS. 

1.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  square  the  stock  before  attempting 
to  lay  out  work  which  is  made  up  of  circles  or  curves  ? 

2.  In  assembling  with  screws,  how  large  should  the  hole  in 
the  first  piece  of  material  be  ? 

3.  What  are  the  important  principles  to  be  observed  in  mak- 
ing a  rectangular  box? 

4.  How  do  you  lay  out  the  angle  in  making  a  miter  box? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  in  the  use  of  corrugated 
nails? 

6.  Name  and  explain  the  construction  of  three  pieces  of  work 
which  could  be  assembled  satisfactorily  with  corrugated  nails. 

7.  How  deep  should  the  gains  be  cut  in  setting  a  hinge? 

8.  How  can  you  adjust  a  screen  door  hook  that  is  either  too 
tight  or  too  loose? 

9.  In  building  shelves,  what  is  the  advantage  of  the  gained, 
or  housed,  joint? 

10.  Why  will  a  sled  with  round  soles  coast  more  readily  than 
one  with  flat  soles? 

11.  Why  should  the  saddle  of  a  long  trestle  be  turned  edge- 
wise? 

12.  What  is  the  advantage  of  a  notched  block  on  a  saw  horse? 

13.  Why  is  a  shaved  hammer  or  hatchet  handle  stronger  and 
better  than  one  turned  by  machinery? 

14.  How  many  board  feet  of  material  in  the  Sleeve  Board? 
What  is  the  cost  of  the  material  (including  the  screws)  ? 

15.  Counting  your  time  at  121/2  cents  per  hour,  what  is  the 
work  on  your  Sleeve  Board  worth? 

16.  Count  your  time  and  material  and  estimate  the  value  of 
each  article  made  in  this  section. 

17.  If  you  should  repeat  any  project  which  you  have  already 
made,  how  much  time  do  you  think  you  could  save  without  slight- 
ing the  work?    Why  is  this  true? 

18.  If  you  should  undertake  to  make  a  dozen  of  any  one  les- 
son, would  it  require  twelve  times  as  long  as  to  make  one?    Why? 

19.  How  would  you  manage  your  work  if  you  had  the  task  of 
making  six  window  screens  all  just  alike?    What  are  the  advan- 
tages in  doing  it  as  you  suggest?    Why  would  you  not  make  one 
complete  before  cutting  the  stock  for  any  of,  the  others  ? 

20.  Why  can  a  factory,  which  is  making  articles  by  the  thou- 
sand, produce  them  much  cheaper  than  a  man  who  simply  makes 
one  or  two  by  hand  ? 


155 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS  (Concluded). 

21.  At  what  angle  do  you  cut  the  pieces  in  making  a  picture 
frame  or  window  screen? 

22.  Haw  many  paddles  are  necessary    on    a    water  wheel? 
Why? 

23.  Why  should  the  inside  of  a  flower  box  be  painted? 

24.  How  many  board  feet  of  material  required  to  make  the 
book  shelves? 

25.  What  would  be  the  difference  in  expense  of  oak  and  pine 
in  the  material  for  the  book  shelves? 

26.  Are  hatchet  and  hammer  handles  made  exactly  the  same 
shape?     Can  you  explain  the  difference? 

27.  What  is  the  advantage  in  making  a  dish  cloth  rack  so  it 
will  fold? 

28.  How  much  time  was  required  to  make  the  dish  cloth 
rack  ?     What  was  the  cost  of  the  material  ? 

29.  Can  you  explain  why  some  articles  are  rather  expensive 
even  though  they  do  not  contain  much  material? 

30.  What  two  things  must  be  considered  in  figuring  the  cost 
of  a  completed  article? 


156 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SECTION  IV 

THIS  section  presents  a  number  of  modifications  and  develop- 
ments of  tne  elementary  tool  processes  and  principles  set 
forth  in  the  earlier  sections.     Students  who  have  success- 
fully accomplished  the  work  of  the  first  half  of  this  book,  or  its 
equivalent,  are  sufficiently  grounded  in  the  fundamentals  of  shop 
work  to  be  able  to  exercise  considerable  judgment  not  only  in  the 
choice  of  projects  to  be  undertaken,    but    also    in    incorporating 
original  ideas  and  personal  tastes  in  the  designs. 

The  projects  of  this  section  are  so  varied  in  nature  and  func- 
tion, as  well  as  in  amount  and  expense  of  materials,  that  there 
should  be  no  difficulty  in  appealing  to  the  immediate  interest  of 
every  member  of  any  class.  While  the  projects  do  not  all  present 
the  same  mechanical  principles,  yet  they  deal  with  forms  of  con- 
struction which  the  students  should  be  capable  of  handling. 

Some  students  will  desire  to  make  some  of  the  smaller  proj- 
ects, which  give  an  opportunity  for  artistic  expression.  The  can- 
dlestick, vase  and  hand  mirror  are  particularly  suitable  for  prac- 
tice along  this  line.  A  study  of  the  references  given  under  these 
lessons  will  guide  to  the  proper  conception  of  motive  and  design. 
Other  students  of  a  more  practical  turn  of  mind  may  be  interested 
in  making  projects  which  will  be  useful  about  the  home  or  farm ; 
such  lessons  will,  of  course,  necessitate  a  little  more  expense  on 
account  of  the  amount  of  material  used,  but  when  the  value  of 
the  finished  article  is  considered  the  making  of  usable  projects  is 
quite  economical. 

No  attempt  is  made  in  this  section  to  introduce  principles  of 
cabinet  construction;  however,  the  simple  box  type  is  employed 
in  some  of  the  projects  and  the  fundamental  principles  of  making 
opposite  sides  exactly  equal  and  of  assembling  parts  perfectly 
square  should  be  carefully  impressed. 

In  practical  drawing  work  students  should  be  able  to  make 
a  simple  sketch  and  to  prepare  regular  three-view  drawings  of 
projects  to  be  undertaken  in  the  shop. 

Before  leaving  this  section  all  students  should  appreciate  the 
value  of  keeping  their  tools  in  good  order  and  should  be  able  to 
sharpen  the  edge  tools,  such  as  chisels  and  plane  blades,  with 
considerable  skill. 


157 


WASH  BENCH 

MATERIALS. 

Cypress    (Chap.    III.,   Par. 

46)  or  any  soft  wood. 

Ipc.    7/8"xl3l/2"x35i/2"   S2S 

Top. 
2  pcs.  7/8"xll3/4"xl8i/2"   S2S 

Legs. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x4"x34"  S2S 

Skirt  boards. 
21/2  doz.  8d  finishing  nails. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Although  washing  machines  are  quite  generally  used,  the 
washtub  has  a  place  in  home  laundry  work,  and  for  that  reason 
it  is  necessary  to  provide  some  sort  of  bench  for  it. 

The  wash  bench  shown  in  this  lesson  is  a  convenient  size  to 
accommodate  one  tub  and  leave  some  room  at  the  side  for  other 
purposes.  The  slot  in  the  top  of  the  bench  is  to  serve  as  a  hand 
hold,  enabling  one  to  move  it  from  place  to  place  with  the  use  of 
one  hand.  The  height  of  the  bench  is  largely  a  matter  of  choice 
with  the  person  who  is  to  use  it.  The  general  plan  of  this  bench 
is  the  same  as  should  be  used  in  constructing  a  substantial  bench 
for  other  purposes.  The  length,  height  and  width  can  be  changed 
to  suit  the  purpose  for  which  the  bench  is  intended. 


References : 


U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  607,  The  Farm  Kitchen  As  a  Workshop. 

With  the  Men  Who  Do  Thinsrs,  A.  Russel  Bond. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Bulletins  No.  22,  30,  36. 

The  Story  of  Lumber,  Bassett.     The  Penn  Pub.  Co.,  Philadelphia. 


L58 


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WASH  BENCH 


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CAMP  OR  PICNIC  TABLE  WITH  BEHCH       LEGS  DRIVEH  INTO  THE  GROUND 


159 

WASH  BENCH  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  LEGS. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  resurface  it.  Select  the  best  side  for  the  working  face  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 4).  Prepare  a  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Lay 
out  the  shape  and  dimension  of  one  of  the  legs  as  given  in  the  draw- 
ing. Carefully  cut  this  leg  to  these  lines.  Be  sure  that  all  edges  are 
planed  perfectly  straight  and  square.  In  like  manner  lay  out,  and 
make  the  second  leg.  Do  not  cut  the  gains  in  the  top  ends  of  the 
legs  to  receive  the  skirt  board  until  after  the  skirt  board  has  been 
prepared. 

THE  SKIRT  BOARD. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  skirt  board  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs' 
1,  2,  3  and  4) .  Lay  out  and  cut  the  skirt  board  the  desired  shape 
and  dimension  as  given  in  the  drawing.  In  like  manner  prepare  the 
second  skirt  board.  Notice  that  the  gains  in  the  top  ends  of  the 
legs  are  to  be  cut  just  wide  enough  and  deep  enough  to  receive  the 
skirt  board. 

You  may  lay  out  these  gains,  making  them  just  that  size.  The 
depth  of  the  gains  may  be  laid  out  with  the  marking  gauge  by  set- 
ting it  to  the  thickness  of  the  skirt  board.  Saw  out  these  gains, 
using  the  back  saw  to  saw  down  to  the  gauge  line,  and  the  rip  saw 
to  rip  them  down.  Prepare  all  four  gains  in  the  same  manner. 

THE  TOP. 

Select  the  best  surface  for  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 2)  ;  prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  ;  pre- 
pare a  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5) .  Lay  out  and  make 
this  the  size  indicated  in  the  drawing.  If  inconvenient  to  get  a 
board  wide  enough  to  make  the  top  in  one  piece,  two  or  more  pieces 
may  be  used  by  joining  them  with  dowels  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph 
72).  By  using  battens  on  the  under  side,  the  top  may  be  made  of 
strips  with  uniform  cracks  left  between  them. 

The  hole  in  the  top  of  the  bench  will  afford  a  place  for  the  hand 
in  picking  it  up.  This  will  make  it  possible  to  handle  the  bench 
easily  with  one  hand.  Lay  out  and  cut  this  hole.  You  may  easily 
do  this  by  boring  two  1-inch  holes  the  correct  distance  apart,  and 
sawing  out  between  them  with  a  compass  saw  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 9). 


160 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  bench  is  to  be  assembled  with  nails.  The  skirt  boards 
are  to  be  nailed  in  position  on  to  the  legs.  This  might  be  done 
first.  With  the  steel  square,  test  carefully  to  make  sure  that  the 
legs  stand  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  edge  of  the  skirt  board. 
Nail  both  skirt  boards  securely  in  position,  carefully  testing  all 
angles  to  see  that  they  are  square.  The  top  is  to  be  nailed  down 
through  into  the  skirt  board,  and  into  the  ends  of  the  legs.  See 
that  the  top  is  evenly  divided,  letting  it  extend  the  same  distance 
on  each  end,  and  on  each  edge.  Nail  it  in  position,  being  very 
careful  not  to  bruise  it  with  the  hammer  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
21) .  In  any  kind  of  work  where  the  heads  are  to  show,  nails  should 
be  uniformly  spaced. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  remove  all  pencil  and  tool  marks. 
The  nails  may  be  set  and  puttied,  if  so  desired.  As  this  bench  is 
to  be  used  for  laundry  purposes,  it  will  no  doubt  often  be  wet,  and 
for  that  reason  will  need  a  coating  of  paint  to  protect  it  against 
the  moisture  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52).  If  you  are  not  sup- 
plied with  paint,  it  might  be  given  a  coating  of  oil  stain  (Chapter 
IV.,  Paragraph  54).  This  will  serve  the  purpose  very  well.  A 
coating  of  shellac  might  be  added;  it  will  help  to  harden  the  sur- 
face, thus  making  it  more  durable  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57) . 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

OUTDOOR  STATIONARY  BENCH. 

1.  The  principles  of  bench  construction  can  be  applied  in  an 
unlimited  number  of  ways  for  practical  purposes.  Suggestion  No.  1 
shows  a  very  serviceable  plan  for  the  construction  of  a  strong  out- 
door bench  for  any  kind  of  general  service  about  the  barn  or  dairy. 

PICNIC  BENCH. 

2.  It  is  often  necessary  to  construct  a  bench  and  table  for 
camping,  picnic  or  lawn  festival  purposes.     The  idea  given  in  the 
suggestion  will  be  found  very  practicable.     It  represents  a  very 
easy  and  economical  plan,  for  the  stakes  are  simply  driven  into  the 
ground ;  thus  the  bench  does  not  require  much  material  in  the  way 
of  braces. 


161 

NAIL  OR  SCREW  TRAY 

MATERIALS. 

Poplar  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  42) 

or  any  soft  wood. 
2  pcs.  y2"x&A"xIG"      S  2  S 

Bottom. 
2  pcs.  !/2"x3i4"xl6i/2"  S  2  S 

Sides. 
2  pcs.  i/2"x3i/4"xlli/2"  S  2  S 

Ends. 
1  pc.    i/2"x5"x!6"          S2S 

Middle  partition. 
4  pcs.  i/2"x3"x  5i/2"      S  2  S 

Partitions. 
2i/2  doz.  li/2"  Brads. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Nails  and  screws  of  various  sizes  are  almost  constantly  in 
demand  for  odd  jobs  about  the  home  and  the  farm.  For  this  rea- 
son every  home  should  be  provided  with  some  sort  of  convenient 
place  to  keep  a  few  nails  and  screws  for  emergencies.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  a  large  box  containing  a  promiscuous  lot  of  all 
sizes  of  nails,  screws  and  other  small  hardware  usually  quite 
rusty  and  dirty.  This  method  of  caring  for  those  things  render 
them  almost  worthless  for  good  workmanship. 

The  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  present  a  means  of  keeping 
nails  and  screws  handy  for  use  and  also  making  it  possible  to 
have  them  classified  and  kept  in  separate  bins.  The  tray  may  be 
divided  into  as  many  compartments  as  desirable.  It  is  well  to 
have  one  tray  for  nails  and  a  separate  one  for  screws. 


References : 


Nails  and  Screws,  How  We  Are  Housed,  Carpenter.     American  Book  Co. 
Nail  Making,  Stories  of  Industries,  Chase  and  Clow.     Educational  Pub. 

Co. 
Every  Man  His  Own  Mechanic,  Barnard.     Fredrick  A.  Stokes  Co.,  New 

York. 


6-Voc. 


162 


HAIL  &  SCREW  TRAY 


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163 

NAIL  OR  SCREW  TRAY  SPECIFICATIONS 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  it  will  not  be  necessary  for 
you  to  resurface  it. 

THE  SIDES. 

Select  the  best  surface  of  one  of  the  side  pieces  for  a  working 
face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Square  this  stock  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraphs  4,  5),  and  lay  out  the  side  the  size  and  shape  shown 
in  the  drawing.  Carefully  cut  this  piece,  and  plane  all  the  edges 
perfectly  straight  and  square.  In  like  manner  prepare  the  oppo- 
site side.  Compare  the  two  sides  to  make  sure  they  are  exactly 
the  same  width  and  length. 

THE  ENDS. 

Square  the  stock  for  one  of  the  ends  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs 
2,  3,  4,  5) .  Lay  out  and  cut  one  end  the  size  and  shape  shown  in 
the  drawing.  In  like  manner  square  the  other  end.  Make  sure 
that  the  opposite  ends  are  exactly  the  same  length  and  width. 

THE  HANDLE  PARTITION. 

The  main  central  partition  is  also  to  serve  for  the  handle,  so 
it  must  be  laid  out  wide  enough  to  extend  sufficiently  above  the 
side  pieces  to  form  the  handle,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Square 
this  piece  of  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4,  5).  Lay  out 
and  make  it  the  shape  and  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  (If 
you  care  to,  you  may  modify  the  design  for  the  handle) . 

THE  BOTTOM. 

The  bottom  may  be  made  of  two  pieces  of  material,  in  which 
case  the  joint  should  come  exactly  under  the  central  partition.  This 
will  prevent  the  joint  from  showing  from  the  top  side  of  the  work 
when  it  is  completed ;  it  should,  however,  be  carefully  done.  Square 
the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4,  5) ;  lay  out  and  execute 
the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  PARTITIONS. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4,  5)  for  the 
partitions.  Plane  the  material  the  right  width;  the  lengths  of 
these  partitions  may  be  cut  after  the  rest  of  the  box  is  assembled. 
This  will  give  you  a  chance  to  measure  the  length  of  each  parti- 
tion, and  make  it  fit  perfectly,  even  if  there  happens  to  be  a  little 
variation. 


164 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  box  is  to  be  assembled  with  brads  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 21).  Nail  the  end  pieces  on  to  the  ends  of  the  bottom  piece. 
Make  sure  that  th,ey  are  exactly  even  at  the  outside  edges  so  that 
when  the  side  pieces  come  on,  they  will  strike  the  bottom  piece  and 
also  the  ends.  If  they  are  not  exactly  even,  plane  them  so.  Nail 
the  side  pieces  in  position,  making  sure  they  are  perfectly  square 
with  the  ends.  Test  frequently  with  the  try-square  in  assembling 
the  work.  Nail  the  handle  partition  in  position,  and  test  with 
the  try-square  to  make  sure  it  stands  perpendicularly. 

In  cutting  the  short  partitions,  make  them  just  long  enough 
to  fit  snugly  between  the  handle  partition  and  the  sides.  Do  not 
try  to  force  them  or  they  will  spread  the  box  out  of  shape.  These 
partitions  are  to  be  fastened  in  position  by  nailing  through  the  bot- 
tom and  sides.  The  first  two  may  be  nailed  through  the  handle 
partition ;  the  last  two  will  be  difficult  to  nail,  although  a  small  brad 
may  be  toe-nailed  in  the  top  edge  of  each,  if  desirable  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  22). 

FINISHING. 

With  a  keen  block  plane  go  over  the  outside  of  your  work  and 
plane  off  any  joints  that  may  be  uneven.  Finish  with  sandpaper 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  Stain  this  piece  of  work  any  desir- 
able color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54).  If  the  wood  is  left  un- 
stained, it  will  soon  become  soiled,  and  will  not  be  neat  in  appear- 
ance. Finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

KNIFE  AND  FORK  BOX. 

1.  By  leaving  out  the  cross  partitions,  and  changing  the  gen- 
eral design  slightly  to  suit  personal  taste,  a  very  convenient  knife 
and  fork  box  may  be  constructed  on  this  plan. 

SEWING  TRAY. 

2.  The  principles  set  forth  in  this  tray  lesson  may  be  em- 
ployed in  making  sewing  trays,  particularly  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  school  classes.     By  leaving  out  all  the  partitions,  and  changing 
the  size  of  the  tray  as  local  needs  might  demand,  a  very  satisfactory 
receptacle  for  sewing  materials  may  be  provided. 


165 

CANDLE-STICK  f| 

MATERIALS. 

Oak,  quartered  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29 
and  51). 

Ipc.    7/8"x43/4"x43/4"  S2S  Base. 

1  pc.  Ii/2"xli/2"x4%"  S  4  S  Up- 
right. 

1  pc.  %"xli/2"x4"       S2S  Han- 
dle. 

1  pc.    %"x2"x2"          S  2  S  Top. 

l-li/2"  NO.  10  F.  H.  B.  screw. 

6-34"  No.  17  Brads. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  these  days  of  modern  means  of  lighting,  gas  and  electricity 
have  completely  supplanted  the  old-time  use  of  the  candle.  This 
old-fashioned  way  of  lighting  a  home  entirely  by  tallow  candles 
and  of  doing  all  our  reading  by  such  a  light  would  now  seem  im- 
possible, and  while  we  never  expect  to  return  to  this  plan  of 
equipment,  yet  the  candle-stick  is  a  very  popular  and  unique  bit 
of  decoration  in  a  modern  home  because  of  its  historic  interest. 

The  candle-stick  presented  in  this  lesson  is  the  plain  mission 
style;  it  is  intended  to  present  simplicity  of  design.  It  will  be 
found  quite  appropriate  for  a  Christmas  or  birthday  present. 


References : 


The  Chemical  History  of  a  Candle,  Michael  Farraday.     Harper  &  Bros., 

Pub. 
The   Candlestick,    Design   and   Construction   in   Wood,   Noyes.     Manual 

Arts  Press. 

The  Application  of  Ornament,  Lewis  F.  Day. 
Design  in  Theory  and  Practice,  Ernest  A.  Batchelder. 
Copper  Work,  Augustus  Rose.     Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Co.,  Chicago. 


166 


CANDLE  STICK 


4£-    H 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGN 


D 


167 

CANDLE  STICK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BASE. 

Even  though  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  it  should  be  care- 
fully surfaced  either  with  a  very  keen  plane,  or  with  the  steel 
scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16).  In  selecting  the  face  side  of 
this  class  of  material,  select  the  side  which  has  the  most  beautiful 
grain  appearance.  Square  the  stock  for  the  base  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graphs 2,  3,  4,  5) .  Lay  out  and  execute  the  dimensions  of  the  base 
as  indicated  in  the  drawing.  Make  sure  that  all  edges  are  perfect- 
ly straight  and  square  and  that  the  base  is  absolutely  square  when 
completed.  All  edges  must  be  smooth.  On  the  end  grain  you  will 
find  this  just  a  little  difficult;  it  will  require  a  very  sharp  block 
plane,  and  much  careful  work.  Be  sure  you  do  not  splinter  out  the 
edges  as  you  plane  the  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5). 

THE  UPRIGHT. 

Although  this  piece  of  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  you  should 
carefully  resurface  every  face  of  it  with  a  steel  scraper  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  16) .  The  corners  must  be  left  perfectly  distinct  and 
sharp.  This  is  a  straight  line  design,  and  if  you  should  round  the 
corners  of  the  upright,  it  would  destroy  the  design  of  your  candle 
stick.  Cut  the  upright  the  desired  length.  If  you  have  a  miter 
box  you  will  find  it  convenient  for  making  this  square  cut.  If  not, 
be  sure  to  square  it  on  all  sides  with  the  try-square  and  cut  care- 
fully to  the  line. 

THE  TOP. 

Boring  the  hole  in  this  top  piece  is  a  very  delicate  operation. 
If  you  have  a  Forstner  bit,  it  can  be  used  for  this  purpose.  If  not, 
an  ordinary  bit,  if  very  sharp,  will  do  the  work  satisfactorily,  if 
you  will  be  very  careful  not  to  bore  too  rapidly.  You  can  take 
further  precautions  to  prevent  splitting  by  laying  this  small  piece 
on  a  scrap  block  of  the  same  width,  then  tightening  the  two  slight- 
ly in  your  vise.  Do  not  attempt  to  bore  this  hole  entirely  through 
from  one  side  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9) .  After  the  hole  is  bored, 
lay  out  and  cut  the  material  the  size  given  in  the  drawing.  Finish 
the  edges  carefully  with  a  wood  file,  or  a  block  plane  and  sandpaper. 
Make  sure  that  all  edges  are  perfectly  square,  and  that  the  corners 
are  sharp  and  distinct. 

THE  HANDLE. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  handle  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2, 
3,  4).  Lay  out  the  shape  of  the  handle  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 


168 

or  any  other  design  which  you  may  desire.  Whatever  design  you 
use  should  have  well-defined  lines  to  correspond  with  the  general 
idea  of  the  design  of  the  candle  stick.  With  the  coping,  or  com- 
pass saw,  saw  out  the  shape  of  the  handle.  Carefully  finish  with 
the  wood  file  and  sandpaper,  leaving  all  edges  distinct  and  square. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  piece  of  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  screws  and  brads. 
Fasten  the  upright  to  the  base  by  a  large  screw  up  through  the  bot- 
tom of  the  base.  Bore  the  hole  in  the  base  large  enough  for  the 
screw  to  pass  through  freely  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9).  Make 
sure  this  hole  is  bored  exactly  in  the  center  of  the  base.  You  can 
locate  this  center  by  drawing  pencil  lines  across  the  bottom  from 
one  corner  to  the  other.  Countersink  this  hole  freely  so  the  screw 
will  go  slightly  below  the  level  of  the  baseboard.  Also  be  sure  that 
the  upright  stands  perfectly  square  when  it  is  in  position.  Fasten 
the  top  to  the  upright  with  four  small  brads  in  the  corners.  Make 
sure  that  it  projects  equally  on  all  sides  of  the  upright. 

The  handle  is  to  be  fastened  to  the  base  and  upright  with 
brads;  holes  should  be  made  for  the  brads  (with  a  very  fine  brad 
awl)  entirely  through  this  piece  of  material,  for  it  is  very  delicate. 
You  will  have  to  use  a  fine-pointed  nail -set  to  finish  driving  these 
brads. 

FINISHING. 

The  finishing  on  this  piece  of  work  is  very  important ;  it  must 
therefore  be  done  with  great  care.  Stain  it  the  desired  color 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54)  ;  finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  57)  or  wax  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  56). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

VASE. 

The  vase  shown  in  the  photograph  will  be  found  a  very  inter- 
esting companion  piece  for  this  candle  stick.  You  should  make  a 
working  drawing  of  your  own  for  this  piece  of  work.  It  will  be 
suitable  for  dry  flowers,  or  to  contain  a  small,  glass  vase  of  water 
for  a  bouquet  of  fresh  flowers. 


169 

HAND  MIRROR 

MATERIALS. 

Mahogany    (Chap.   III.,   Par.   50), 

Walnut    (Chap.  III.,  Par.  44), 

Cherry  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  34), 

Gum  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  37). 

1  pc.  3/4"x6i4"xll"  S2S 
1-5"  D  bevel  plate  mirror. 
1  pc.  rattan  i/8"x!6". 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

A  small  mirror  is  a  convenient  article  for  the  dressing  table 
or  the  traveling  bag.  While  there  are  innumerable  kinds  of  hand 
mirrors  on  the  market,  yet  a  hand-made  one  will  be  very  much 
appreciated  because  of  its  special  personal  interest. 

This  mirror  should  be  made  from  one  of  the  finer  cabinet 
woods,  such  as  mahogany,  gum,  cherry  or  walnut.  It  must  be 
carefully  executed  so  as  to  be  free  from  all  tool  marks  and  must 
have  a  fine  finish  or  it  will  not  be  appropriate  for  the  purpose  in- 
tended. This  piece  of  work  well  done  will  make  an  especially  at- 
tractive gift. 


References : 


Glass  Manufacture,  Walter  Rosenhain.     D.  Van  Nostand  Co. 

The  Making  of  Plate  Glass,  Pittsburgh  Plate  Glass  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

A  Visit  to  a  Glass  Factory,  How  the  World  Is  Housed,  Carpenter.  Amer- 
ican Book  Co. 

Silvering  Glass,  C.  C.  Baly.     Scientific  Am.  Sup.,  January  11,  1908. 

Mirrors,  Young  Folks'  Cyclopedia  of  Common  Things,  Champlin.  Henry 
Holt  &  Co. 

Materials  Used  in  Silvering  Glass.  Scientific  Am.  Sup.,  February  11, 
1905. 


170 


HAND  MIRROR 


SUGGESTIONS  FORORIGIHAL  PESIGH 


No.3 


171 

HAND  MIRROR  SPECIFICATIONS 

Since  this  piece  of  material  must  be  completely  surfaced  as 
one  of  the  last  operations,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  resurface  it 
now.  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  and  a 
working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Make  all  measurements 
from  the  working  edge  and  working  end,  and  lay  out  the  entire 
shape  of  the  mirror. 

With  your  compasses  lay  out  the  opening  which  is  to  be  cut 
to  receive  the  mirror  plate.  (It  would  be  well  to  measure  the  mir- 
ror which  you  are  to  use  to  make  sure  that  it  is  exactly  the  size 
shown  in  the  drawing).  This  opening  for  the  mirror  plate  should 
be  cut  as  the  first  operation.  If  you  have  an  expansive  bit,  this 
hole  can  be  easily  cut  with  it.  If  you  do  not  have  one,  lay  out 
the  circle  very  carefully  with  the  compasses,  and  with  a  sharp- 
pointed  knife  trace  this  compass  mark,  cutting  it  as  deeply  as  you 
can  conveniently;  then  with  a  sharp  chisel  cut  away  the  wood  in 
the  central  part  up  to  this  line.  This  will  have  to  be  done  with 
extreme  care,  or  you  will  chip  out  the  edge  beyond  the  compass 
line  and  completely  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  work.  Continue 
cutting  this  compass  line  deeper  and  deeper  as  you  cut  away  the 
material  in  the  central  part,  until  you  have  reached  the  desired 
depth.  By  studying  the  drawing  you  will  notice  that  this  line 
should  be  cut  back  at  an  angle  to  receive  the  small  piece  of  rattan 
which  holds  the  mirror  in  position. 

After  you  have  cut  the  opening  the  required  depth  and  shape 
to  receive  the  mirror,  saw  out  the  other  curves  with  a  compass 
or  coping  saw.  You  should  be  careful  to  have  the  edges  perfectly 
square.  As  all  of  these  edges  are  to  be  rounded,  the  first  opera- 
tion would  be  to  chamfer  them  equally  all  the  way  round.  To  do 
this,  gauge  on  all  surfaces  and  all  edges,  using  the  pencil  and  finger 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8).  This  chamfering  can  be  most  satis- 
factorily done  with  a  sharp  sloyd  knife  or  pocket  knife.  This  whit- 
tling, however,  must  be  done  with  great  care,  or  you  will  split  out 
beyond  the  gauge  line  and  mar  your  work.  After  the  chamfering 
has  been  completed,  you  should  go  entirely  around  the  work  again, 
cutting  away  the  remaining  corners  of  the  chamfer.  This  causes 
the  edge  to  approach  the  rounded  shape.  After  as  much  work  has 
been  done  with  the  pocket  knife  as  convenient,  the  wood  file  should 
be  used  to  complete  the  rounding.  Ail  edges  should  be  made  per- 
fectly round  and  smooth.  This  portion  of  the  work  cannot  be  hur- 
ried and  must  be  carefully  completed,  after  which  all  edges  should 
be  sandpapered.  The  plan  used  in  sandpapering  a  cylinder  (Chap- 


172 

ter  II.,  Paragraph  15)  could  be  successfully  used.     All  tool  marks, 
rough  places  and  irregularities  must  be  removed. 

FASTENING  THE  MIRROR  IN  POSITION. 

Cut  a  piece  of  blotting  paper,  or  any  other  soft  paper,  the  exact 
size  of  the  mirror;  lay  it  in  the  bottom  of  the  opening  before  put- 
ting in  the  mirror;  this  will  prevent  the  mirror  from  becoming 
scratched.  Press  the  mirror  firmly  in  position,  and  cut  the  piece 
of  rattan  long  enough,  so  that  when  it  is  laid  around  the  outside 
edge  of  the  mirror  in  position,  it  will  fit  perfectly  tight.  A  little 
glue  should  be  placed  in  the  joint  which  is  to  receive  the  rattan; 
it  should  then  be  pressed  closely  in  position.  The  work  should  be 
left  undisturbed  for  several  hours  for  the  glue  to  harden.  Use  but 
little  glue  or  it  will  ooze  out  and  mar  the  surface  of  the  work;  if 
any  glue  gets  on  the  surface,  it  should  be  removed  before  it  hardens. 

FINISHING. 

After  all  tool  marks  have  been  removed,  and  the  work  has 
been  made  absolutely  smooth,  it  should  be  finishad  with  shellac. 
As  this  piece  of  work  is  made  of  fine  cabinet  wood,  it  possibly  will 
not  be  desirable  to  stain  it.  The  French  polish  will  be  a  very  suit- 
able finsh  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57) .  In  rubbing  the  work  with 
sandpaper  or  pumice  stone  and  oil,  be  very  careful  not  to  rub  the 
glass,  for  these  materials  will  scratch  it.  Do  not  leave  this  piece 
of  work  until  a  beautiful  polish  is  made. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

ROUND  MIRROR. 

1.  A  round  mirror,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  at  the  open- 
ing of  this  lesson,  will  be  found  very  convenient  as  a  part  of  a 
traveling  bag  equipment. 

ELLIPTICAL  MIRROR. 

2.  An  elliptical  mirror  may  be  made  using  the  plan  given  in 
this  lesson.  The  ellipse  may  be  laid  out  after  the  manner  suggested 
in  supplementary  problem  P  in  the  chapter  on  mechanical  drawing. 


173 


FLOWER  POT  STAND 


MATERIALS. 

Yellow    Pine     (Chap.    III., 

Par.  48)  or  any  soft 

wood. 

2  pcs.  7/g"x5i/4"x35"    S  2  S 
Shelves. 

1  pc.     7/8"x5l4"x44"    s  2  S 

Top. 

2  pcs.  7/<j"x4i/2"x36"    S  2  S 
Legs. 

3  pcs.  7/8"x4i/2"x35i/2"  S  2  S  Back  2  pcs.  7/8"x2i/2"x3"    S  2  S    Brack- 
shelf,  ets. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x41/2"x24"  S  2  S  Legs.  5  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x3"x5i/2"    S  2  S   Brack-  4  small  castors. 

ets.  8-1/2"  corrugated  nails. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Many  homes  are  made  more  cheerful  and  beautiful  by  keep- 
ing a  few  pots  of  growing  plants  and  flowers.  Unless  some  spe- 
cial way  is  provided  to  care  for  them  there  is  considerable  incon- 
venience connected  with  the  task. 

The  purpose  of  this  flower  pot  stand  is  to  provide  a  substan- 
tial and  satisfactory  stand  upon  which  the  flower  pots  may  be 
placed  where  there  will  be  no  danger  of  their  being  knocked  over. 
It  will  also  give  the  flowers  a  chance  to  be  seen  and  to  be  moved 
about  conveniently. 

This  stand  can  be  made  any  size  to  suit  the  room  and  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  intended.  A  very  large  stand  would  be  suit- 
able for  outdoor  or  porch  use,  while  a  smaller  and  more  neatly 
made  one  would  be  required  for  inside  service.  If  the  stand  is 
placed  on  castors  it  will  be  found  a  great  convenience  in  moving 
it  from  place  to  place  for  the  purpose  of  sweeping  or  accommo- 
dating the  plants  to  the  sunlight. 


References : 


U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  113,  Experimental  Gardens  and  Grounds. 
Garden  Making,  Bailey.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  publishers. 
How  to  Know  Wild  Flowers,  W.  S.  Dana.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 
Plants,  J.  M.  Coulter.     Appleton  Pub.  Co.,  New  York. 


174 


FLOWER  POT  STAND 


o 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGN 


Ho.  I 


175 

FLOWER  POT  STAND  SPECIFICATIONS 

I 

THE  LEGS. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  it  will  not  be  necessary  for 
you  to  plane  the  surface.  Select  the  best  side  for  a  working  face 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4).  This  angle  for  the  legs  is  known  as  the  half  pitch 
cut  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  75).  This  cut  should  be  laid  out  as 
explained  in  Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  24.  Cut  all  the  legs  the  di- 
mensions shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  SHELVES. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  resurface  this  material.  Prepare 
a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  and  a  squared  end 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Cut  the  material  the  width  and  length 
shown  in  the  drawing.  Make  sure  all  the  shelves  are  exactly  the 
same  length. 

THE  TOP. 

The  top  shelf  should  be  long  enough  to  project  at  each  end, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Since  the  ends  of  the  top  piece  will  be 
exposed,  they  should  be  block  planed  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5), 
and  finished  with  sandpaper. 

The  side  shelves  should  also  have  the  ends  block  planed  and 
sandpapered. 

THE  BRACKETS. 

Lay  out  one  of  the  larger  brackets  the  desired  shape.  (If  you 
wish  you  may  make  an  original  design.)  With  the  coping  or  com- 
pass saw,  saw  it  out  and  with  the  wood  file  or  block  plane  make  all 
edges  perfectly  straight  and  square.  Be  sure  that  the  angle  of 
the  bracket  is  a  perfect  right  angle ;  test  it  with  the  square.  Using 
this  as  a  pattern,  lay  out  and  cut  the  other  large  bracket  exactly 
like  it. 

In  similar  manner  design  and  make  the  required  number  of 
small  brackets. 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  front  legs  are  to  be  joined  to  the  rear  legs  with  corrugated 
nails  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  23) . 

The  shelves  are  to  be  fastened  in  position  by  nailing  through 
the  legs  at  each  end  of  the  shelf.  Lay  out  and  place  the  shelves 
carefully  so  they  will  stand  parallel ;  nail  them  in  position  (Chap- 


176 

ter  II.,  Paragraph  21).  The  top  is  to  be  nailed  down  through  into 
the  legs.  Th2  side  shelves  may  be  toe-nailed  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 22) . 

Test  with  the  square  to  make  sure  that  all  angles  are  perfect, 
then  nail  the  brackets  in  position.  If  properly  made  and  nailed, 
these  brackets  will  brace  the  stand  securely. 

Bore  the  holes  for  the  castors.  The  castors  need  not  be  put 
on  until  after  the  finishing  is  done;  if  they  are  put  on  before,  care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  get  any  stain  on  them. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  remove  all  pencil  or  tool  marks  and  i 
make  sure  that  the  surface  is  perfectly  smooth.  The  nails  may 
be  driven  slightly  below  the  surface  with  a  nail  set.  The  holes 
can  be  filled  with  putty.  Stain  the  desired  color  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  54).  Finish  with  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac  (Chapter 
IV.,  Paragraph  57)  or  a  coat  of  varnish  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph 
58).  NOTE:  If  the  flower  pot  stand  is  to  be  used  out  of  doors, 
one  or  two  coats  of  paint  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52)  will  be  pref- 
erable to  the  shellac  or  varnish,  although  a  good  coating  of  oil  stain 
would  stand  considerable  outside  wear. 


.  Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

RUSTIC  FLOWER  POT  STAND. 

1.  A  rustic  flower  pot  stand  is  particularly  suitable  for  the 
porch  or  lawn.     Suggestion  No.  1  presents  an  idea  for  a  combina- 
tion stand  and  flower  box.     This  idea  may  be  modified  in  a  great 
many  ways  which  will  suggest  themselves  when  the  work  is  under- 
taken. 

PYRAMID  STAND. 

2.  The  shape  of  a  flower  pot  stand  may  be  modified  to  suit 
one's  personal  taste.     In  suggestion  No.  2  the  idea  of  arranging 
the  flowers  in  a  pyramid  is  presented. 


177 


BIRD  HOUSE 


1  pc.   galv.   iron   I2"xl4".    Roof. 


MATERIALS. 

Basswood  (Chap.  III.,  Par. 

31)  or  any  soft  wood. 

Ipc.    %"x8"xl4i/2"       S2S 

Bottom. 
2  pcs.  %"x5i/2"xlOi/2"   S  2  S 

Sides: 
2  pcs.  %"x6"x8"  S  2  S 

Ends. 

1  pc.    3/4"x3l,4"  dowel  rod. 
1  PC.    I4"xl5"  dowel  rod. 
21/2  dozen  11/2"  brads. 
1/2  doz.  %"  No.  6  R.  H.  screws.' 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Most  people  enjoy  the  presence  of  song  birds,  but  many  peo- 
ple do  not  realize  what  a  great  benefit  they  are  to  the  production 
of  farm  and  fruit  crops.  The  Government  and  various  societies 
are  spending  considerable  time  in  an  effort  to  educate  the  public 
to  a  proper  appreciation  of  bird  life.  The  days  of  the  thoughtless 
killing  of  song  birds  have  gone  by  and  now  no  boy  can  claim  to 
be  a  manly  fellow  if  he  insists  upon  being  destructive  to  bird  life. 

This  bird  house  will  provide  a  safe  place  for  the  shelter  of 
desirable  birds  and  their  nests.  When  completed  it  should  be 
mounted  upon  a  pole  or  on  some  building  where  it  will  attract  the 
birds. 


References : 


U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  609,  Bird  Houses. 

Song  Birds  and  Water  Fowls,  Parkhurst.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  Pub. 
Bird  Portraits,  Ernest  Thompson  Seton.     Ginn  &  Co. 
What  I  Have  Done  With  Birds,  Gene  Stratton  Porter.     Bobbs-Merrill  Co. 
A  Watcher  in  the  Woods.  Dallas  Sharp.     Century  Pub.  Co. 
U.  S.  Agricultural  Bulletin  No.  133,  Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers. 
U.  S.  Agricultural  Bulletin  No.  630,  Some  Common  Birds  in  Their  Rela- 
tion to  Agriculture. 

Our  Native  Birds,  Lange.     Macmillan  Co.,  publishers. 
Bird  Life,  Frank  Chapman.     Appleton  Pub.  Co.,  New  York. 
The  Bird,  Its  Form  and  Function,  C.  W.  Beebe.     Holt  Co.,  New  York. 
U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  493,  The  Relation  of  Sparrows  to  Agriculture. 
Bird  Neighbors,  Blanchan.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 
Handbook  of  Birds,  Frank  Chapman.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 


178 


BIRDHOUSE 


DETAIL  OF  ROOF 


THIRPPITGH 


-ID"- 


14' 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGfi 


HO.  I  N0.2 

LIMB  OF  TffEt  SPLIT  AND  HOLLOWED      SMALL  PAINT  KEG 


179 

BIRD  HOUSE  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BOTTOM. 

As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  it  will  not  be  necessary  for 
you  to  resurface  it.  Plane  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graph 4)  and  a  working  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Lay  out 
and  cut  the  material  the  size  shown  in  the  drawing.  Lay  out  the 
chamfer  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  8)  and  plane  to  the  gauge  line. 

THE  SIDES. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  for  you  to  resurface  this  material. 
Prepare  a  working  edge  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  and  a  work- 
ing end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Lay  out  and  cut  the  material 
the  size  indicated  in  the  drawing.  NOTE :  If  you  prefer,  you  need 
not  bevel  the  top  edge  of  the  board  to  receive  the  roof  until  after  it 
is  assembled.  Prepare  the  two  sides  exactly  the  same  length,  and 
make  sure  they  are  perfectly  square. 

THE  ENDS. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4,  5).  Cut 
the  ends  the  exact  shape  and  size  shown  in  the  drawing,  making 
sure  that  the  edges  are  perfectly  straight,  and  that  the  ends  are 
absolutely  square.  The  detailed  drawing  of  the  roof  construction 
will  show  you  that  this  roof  is  to  be  third  pitch  (Chapter  V.,  Para- 
graph 76,  also  Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  25).  Lay  out  and  cut  the 
two  ends  the  required  pitch.  Test  the  two  ends  to  make  sure  they 
are  exactly  the  same  shape  and  size. 

The  size  of  the  door  in  the  bird  house  is  considered  an  impor- 
tant matter  if  you  are  building  your  house  for  any  special  kind  of 
bird.  (A  study  of  the  references  given  will  furnish  you  some 
valuable  information  on  this  subject.)  Lay  out  and  cut  the  door. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  by  nailing  the  side  pieces  on  to  the  end  pieces,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  Test  to  make  sure  that  the  angles  are  per- 
fectly square  and  that  the  edges  are  all  even  at  the  bottom.  Care- 
fully plane  the  side  pieces  to  the  same  bevel  as  the  gable  ends.  This 
will  make  sure  that  the  roof  will  fit  perfectly  on  the  sides.  Be  sure 
the  house  is  perfectly  square,  then  fasten  the  bottom  in  position  by 
nailing  through  into  the  side  and  end  pieces. 


180 

ROOF. 

The  roof  is  to  be  made  of  tin  or  galvanized  sheet  iron.  This 
will  be  a  rectangular  piece  of  tin  large  enough  to  make  the  two  sides 
and  long  enough  to  turn  down  on  each  end  to  form  the  finish,  as 
indicated  in  the  drawing.  If  you  do  not  have  tinner's  snips  in  your 
shop,  this  piece  of  sheet  iron  may  be  cut  with  an  old  pair  of  shears. 

Fasten  the  roof  in  position  with  four  small  screws,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing;  the  use  of  screws  will  make  it  possible  to  remove 
the  roof,  when  the  bird  house  should  be  cleaned  out  for  the  new 
season. 

PERCH  PINS. 

The  perch  pins  are  to  be  of  dowels  fastened  to  the  house  by 
inserting  them  in  small  holes.  The  corner  posts  are  fastened  in 
position  by  screws  put  through  from  the  bottom. 

FINISHING. 

This  house  will  be  exposed  to  sun  and  rain,  and  it  should  there- 
fore be  well  painted  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52) .  If  you  have  no 
paint,  oil  stain  may  be  used.  The  roof  may  be  painted  or  left,  as 
desired.  When  completed  the  house  should  be  put  up  on  a  build- 
ing, on  a  tall  pole  or  in  a  tree. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

RUSTIC  BIRD  HOUSE. 

1.  By  splitting  an  old  limb  of  a  tree  and  hollowing  out  the 
inside  and  re-assembling  it,  a  very  attractive  rustic  bird  house  can 
be  made. 

KEG  BIRD  HOUSE. 

2.  In  suggestion  No.  2  you  will  find  the  drawing  for  a  very 
easily  constructed  bird  house.     It  is  made  of  a  small  paint  keg, 
with  a  piece  of  galvanized  iron  arranged  in  conical  shape  for  a  roof. 

DOLL  HOUSE. 

3.  The  principle  of  construction  of  the  small  house,  set  forth 
in  this  lesson,  may  readily  be  employed  in  the  making  of  a  doll 
house  suitable  for  primary  or  kindergarten  work.     The  size  of  the 
house  may  be  governed  by  the  material  available.     One  side  or  end 
should  be  movable  so  the  interior  may  be  seen  when  desired.    Other 
modifications  of  these  principles  will  suggest  themselves  during 
the  progress  of  the  work. 


181 

WAGON  JACK 


MATERIALS. 

Beech  (Chap.  III.,  Par. 

32)  or  any  hard 

wood. 


Ipc.    l% 

Base. 
2  pcs.    %"x33/4"x25" 

Sides. 
1  pc.      7/8"x3i4"x30" 

Lever. 

3-%"x3"  carriage  bolts 
3-%"  washers. 
1    pc.    soft    iron    rod 

5/16"x4  ft. 
~  1  pc.  %"  strap  iron  12" 

long. 
4.3,4"  No.  8  F.  H.  B. 

screws. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  necessity  of  keeping  a  wagon,  buggy  or  other  vehicle 
constantly  greased  demands  that  some  sort  of  handy  jack  should 
be  in  the  tool  shed  or  barn.  There  are  a  great  many  patent  lift- 
ing jacks  on  the  market,  but  not  every  barn  is  supplied  with  such 
equipment. 

This  wagon  jack  can  be  made  of  scrap  material,  and  usually 
odd  bolts  can  be  found  in  the  tool  shed,  and  thus  all  of  the  ma- 
terial may  be  provided  without  any  expense.  If  possible  it  should 
be  made  of  some  kind  of  hard  wood,  although  almost  any  straight- 
grained  lumber  will  do.  It  should  be  painted  or  well  oiled  with 
linseed  oil. 


References : 


Handy  Farm  Devices  and  How  to  Make  Them,  Cableigh.     Manual  Arts 

Press,  Peoria,  111. 
Agricultural   Apparatus   and   How   It   Is    Made,    Soils   and   Fertilizers, 

Quear. 

Life  on  the  Farm,  Shepard.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 
Making  the  Farm  Pay,  Bousfield.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 
The  Young  Farmer,  Hunt.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 


182 


WAGON  JACK 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGN 


} 


No.l 


183 

WAGON  JACK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BASE. 

As  this  piece  of  material  is  furnished  S  2  S  i t  will  not  be  neces- 
sary for  you  to  resurface  it.  Select  the  best  surface  for  the  work- 
ing face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2)  ;  prepare  a  working  edge 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4)  ;  prepare  a  working  end  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  5) .  Lay  out  and  execute  the  dimensions  of  this  piece 
as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Make  sure  that  the  edges  are  all  per- 
fectly square,  and  that  the  corners  are  chamfered  at  a  regular  half- 
pitch  cut.  This  can  be  done  with  a  miter  box,  if  you  care  to,  or  you 
may  set  the  T-bevel  to  the  half -pitch  cut  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
24)  and  use  it  in  laying  out;  and  cut  with  a  back  saw. 

THE  SIDE  PIECES. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  side  pieces  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs 
2,  3,  4,  5) .  Lay  out  and  make  the  two  side  pieces  the  dimensions 
shown  in  the  drawing.  Notice  that  these  pieces  are  to  be  shoul- 
dered on  to  the  base  piece  leaving  1/2"  thickness  at  the  bottom.  This 
sort  of  joint  will  afford  great  strength  against  a  downward  pres- 
sure, for  it  will  relieve  the  bolts  of  considerable  strain.  Lay  out 
these  joints  with  the  marking  gauge  and  saw  them  down  just  as 
you  would  saw  a  tenon  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  14) . 

THE  LEVER. 

Square  the  stock  of  the  lever  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3, 
4,  5)  ;  lay  out  and  execute  the  dimensions  of  the  lever  as  shown  in 
the  drawing.  In  forming  the  notches  in  the  top  part  of  the  lever, 
it  would  be  well  to  bore  holes  equally  spaced  at  the  proper  distance 
from  the  edge,  and  then  saw  into  these  holes,  thus  forming  the 
notches.  The  piece  of  strap  iron  on  the  front  of  the  lever  is  to 
protect  it  from  wear.  You  can  drill  the  holes  in  the  strap  iron 
with  an  ordinary  drill  bit  used  in  a  brace.  Countersink  the  holes 
with  an  ordinary  rose  countersink. 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  two  side  pieces  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  base  with  bolts,  as 
indicated  in  the  drawing.  It  might  be  well  to  put  the  two  side 
braces  in  position,  and  fasten  them  with  two  or  three  small  brads, 
making  sure  that  the  joints  fit  snugly  on  the  top  edge  of  the  base. 
Then  bore  for  the  bolts  through  all  three  of  the  pieces  at  once,  test- 


184 

ing  with  the  try-square  to  make  sure  that  you  are  boring  perpen- 
dicularly (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  11).  Do  not  bore  entirely 
through  from  one  side  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9). 

Drive  the  bolts  in  position,  place  a  washer  on  each,  and  run 
the  nuts  on  perfectly  tight. 

The  hole  for  the  lever  bolt  might  be  bored  in  like  manner  by 
clamping  the  lever  in  position  between  the  two  side  pieces.  This 
can  be  done  by  putting  them  in  the  vise.  When  you  are  attempting 
to  bore  through  all  these  pieces  of  material  at  one  operation,  care 
must  be  exercised  to  bore  the  hole  perpendicularly  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  11). 

THE  IRON  ROD. 

The  rod  may  be  bent  by  fastening  it  in  the  vise  at  about  1" 
from  the  end,  carefully  bending  it  over.  A  few  careful  blows  with 
the  hammer  will  help  to  form  a  perfect  right  angle.  In  like  man- 
ner another  short  crook  must  be  bent  on  the  other  end.  Measure 
to  find  the  middle  of  the  rod  and  make  the  middle  bend.  By  care- 
fully working  with  this  rod  you  will  be  able  to  adjust  it  so  it  will 
fit  perfectly. 

FINISHING. 

When  the  wagon  jack  is  completed,  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16),  or  wood  file  and  sandpaper,  remove 
all  pencil  or  tool  marks,  and  give  it  one  or  two  coats  of  linseed  oil. 
This  will  make  it  wear  smooth,  and  will  protect  it  against  moisture. 
It  may  be  painted  if  desired  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52). 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

FRICTIONAL  WAGON  JACK. 

1.  Suggestion  No.  1  shows  a  very  convenient  form  of  wagon 
jack  which  has  the  advantage  of  catching  at  any  point,  for  the  rod 
holds  by  friction,  rather  than  by  a  notch  as  is  usually  the  case.  The 
portion  of  the  rod  which  does  the  holding  should  be  mashed  slightly 
so  as  to  present  a  flat  surface  and  edge.    It  may  require  a  little  ex- 
perimenting to  get  it  shaped  to  hold  satisfactorily. 

NOTCHED-BRACE  WAGON  JACK. 

2.  Suggestion  No.  2  shows  still  another  method  of  providing 
the  wagon  jack  with  a  means  of  holding  in  position.    This  notched 
brace  is  attached  to  the  lever  by  means  of  two  small  pieces  of  strap 
iron,  one  on  either  side,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 


185 


SEED  TESTER 

MATERIALS. 

Yellow    Pine     (Chap.    III., 

Par.  48)  or  any  soft 

wood. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x4"x37"      S2S 

Sides. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x4"xl6"       S2S 

Ends. 
9  pcs.  7/8"x4"xl5"       S2S 

Bottom. 
6  pcs.  7/8"x3i/2"xl8"   s  2  s 

Legs. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x3i/2"x4'8"  S  2  S 
Rear  standards. 

1  pc.     7/8"x3i/2"x38"   S  2  S 

Stretcher.     . 

10  pcs.  7/8"x2"x36"       S  2  S 
Corn  racks. 

3  pcs.  3^'x  %"x3G"  S  4  S 
Inside  strips. 

100-lOd  common  nails. 
9  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Before  men  thoroughly  understood  the  reproduction  of  plants 
from  seeds,  it  was  thought  that  any  kernel  of  corn  which  appeared 
to  be  of  good  size  and  shape  would  be  satisfactory  for  seed  pur- 
poses. It  has  been  proven  that  while  we  may  be  able  to  judge 
most  of  the  qualities  of  a  kernel  of  corn  by  examining  it,  we  can- 
not always  definitely  tell  about  its  vitality. 


References : 


Testing  Seed  Corn;  The  Book  of  Corn,  Myrick.    Orange-Judd  Co. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  Ill,  Farmer's  Interest  in  Good  Seed. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  415,  Seed  Corn. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  400,  Profitable  Corn-Planting  Method. 

Minnesota  College  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  No.  24,  Seed  Testing. 

Development  of  the  Corn  Plant,  J.  R.  Steward,  Muncie,  Ind. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  414,  Corn  Cultivation. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  253,  Germination  of  Seed  Corn. 


186 


SEED  CORN  TESTER 


187 

SEED  CORN  TESTER  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SIDE  PIECES. 

Plane  one  edge  of  each  of  the  side  pieces  perfectly  straight 
and  square  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Prepare  a  working  end 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Lay  out  the  dimensions  of  the  side 
pieces  and  cut  them,  making  sure  that  the  opposite  sides  are  exact- 
ly the  same  length  and  width.  In  like  manner  square  the  stock 
and  prepare  the  two  end  pieces. 

THE  BOTTOM. 

The  bottom  is  to  be  made  up  of  narrow  strips,  and  as  the  box 
is  to  hold  moist  dirt  or  sand,  it  will  not  be  well  to  fit  the  joints  too 
closely,  as  they  must  have  room  to  swell.  It  will  not  be  necessary 
to  joint  the  edges  of  the  strips  which  are  to  form  the  bottom.  Nail 
together  the  two  sides  and  the  two  ends,  forming  the  frame.  Cut 
the  pieces  for  the  bottom  just  long  enough  to  fit  snugly  inside  the 
frame.  Put  in  a  sufficient  number  of  strips  to  make  a  solid  bottom. 
Nail  through  the  side  pieces  into  the  ends  of  the  bottom  pieces. 

THE  LEGS. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4,  5).  Lay 
out,  and  make  pieces  the  dimensions  for  the  legs,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing.  Notice  that  the  two  rear  legs  extend  above  the  box  to 
form  a  rack  on  which  to  hang  the  seed  corn  racks.  Fasten  the  legs 
in  position  by  nailing  through  them  into  the  box,  and  by  nailing 
the  edges  together,  "pig  trough"  fashion. 

THE  CORN  RACK. 

The  corn  rack  consists  of  strips  through  which  lOd  nails  are 
driven  at  an  angle ;  each  nail  to  support  one  ear  of  corn.  This  pro- 
vides room  for  100  ears,  thus  making  it  possible  to  test  at  least 
one  bushel  of  corn  at  one  time. 

Prepare  the  ten  strips  and  insert  the  nails  as  shown  in  the 
drawing.  It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  bore  for  the  nails  to 
avoid  splitting  the  strips.  The  boring  should  be  done  at  a  definite 
angle  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  12). 

INSIDE  LEVELING  STRIP. 

On  the  inside  of  the  tray  you  are  to  nail  leveling  strips  which 
will  receive  the  brads  for  the  dividing  string.  Nail  these  strips  in 
position  as  shown  by  dotted  lines  in  the  drawing.  Drive  small 


188 

brads  into  the  top  edges  of  these  strips  to  receive  the  string  which 
divides  the  tray  into  equal  spaces,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

FINISHING. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  the  seed  corn  rack  to  be  given  a  cent 
of  any  sort  of  finishing  material.  However,  it  will  be  much  more 
durable  if  well  painted  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52) . 

THE  USE  OF  THE  SEED  CORN  TESTER. 

The  seed  corn  tester  is  used  to  make  a  germinating  test  of 
seed  corn.  The  tray  of  the  tester  should  be  filled  with  fine  sand; 
level  with  the  top  of  the  strips.  The  strings  should  be  stretched, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Choice  corn  should  be  selected,  two  ker- 
nels taken  from  near  the  butt  of  the  ear,  two  from  near  the  middle 
of  the  ear,  and  two  from  near  the  tip  of  the  ear.  These  six  ker- 
nels should  be  planted  in  a  row  in  one  of  the  little  divisions  of  the 
tester  marked  out  by  the  string.  This  ear  should  then  be  hung 
on  the  strip  on  the  nail  which  corresponds  in  number  to  the  divi- 
sion in  which  the  kernels  are  planted.  In  like  manner  the  entire 
corn  tester  should  be  filled ;  it  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  place,  and 
the  sand  moistened  frequently  for  a  few  days  until  the  kernels 
sprout,  and  send  the  little  corn  plants  above  the  surface.  You  can 
then  tell  the.  exact  vitality  of  each  ear  by  noticing  the  sprouts  put 
forth  by  the  kernel  taken  from  that  ear.  Sometimes  it  will  be 
found  that  the  kernels  near  the  butt  will  grow  well,  while  those 
in  the  middle  of  the  ear  will  grow  only  moderately  well,  and  those 
near  the  tip  very  poorly.  In  this  case  the  ear  should  be  discarded, 
or  only  the  butt  portion  used  for  seed.  Only  ears  of  strong  vital- 
ity should  be  used  for  seed. 

After  the  seed  corn  tester  has  been  used  to  test  out  the  corn 
for  the  spring  planting  the  tray  may  be  filled  with  dirt  and  used 
to  raise  tomato,  cabbage  or  other  plants  for  early  spring  planting. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SAND  TABLE. 

1.  A  sand  table  for  the  use  of  primary  classes  may  be  pre- 
pared in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  tray  of  the  seed  corn  tester 
is  made.     It  may  be  made  as  wide  and  long  as  local  needs  may  de- 

mand'  SOIL  BINS. 

2.  In  connection  with  the  work  in  agriculture,  some  sort  of 
storage  bin  is  required  in  caring  for  the  samples  of  soil  which  must 
be  kept  on  hand.     By  making  the  legs  very  much  longer,  several 
bins  may  be  installed,  one  above  the  other. 


189 

EVENER  AND  SINGLETREE 

MATERIALS. 

Hickory  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  39)  or  Straight- 
grained  Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29) . 

Singletree — 

1  pc.  2"x2%"x35"         rough  or  S  2  S 

Evener — 

1  pc.  2i/8"x43/4"x48"     rough  or  S  2  S 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

Singletrees  are  in  constant  use  both  in  cities  and  on  the  farm 
or  wherever  any  kind  of  team  work  is  being  done.  Singletrees 
are  frequently  broken,  and  although  they  can  be  purchased  on  the 
market,  yet  since  they  are  so  simple  in  construction  it  is  well  for 
a  boy  to  be  able  to  make  them. 

The  best  material  for  this  purpose  is  clear,  straight  hickory; 
a  good  quality  of  ash  or  oak  may  be  used. 

One  great  advantage  in  a  farmer  boy's  being  able  to  handle 
tools  comes  from  the  fact  that  he  can  spend  his  odd  hours  or  rainy 
days  in  making  things  which  will  save  him  considerable  expense. 


References : 


Modern  Blacksmithing  and  Wagon  Making,  Holmstrom.     Fredrick  Drake 

Co.,  Chicago. 

Farm  Buildings,  H.  V.  Van  Hoist.    The  National  Builder,  Chicago,  111. 
The  Gasoline  Engine  on  the  Farm,  Putnam.     Norman  Henly  Pub.  Co., 

New  York. 
Electric   Light  for  the   Farm.     Schneider,    Spon   &   Chamberlain,   New 

York. 

Home  Water  Works,  Lynde.     Sturgis  &  Walton,  New  York. 
Suggestions  for  Home  Blacksmithing,  Library  of  Work  and  Play,  Slef- 

fel.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


190 


DOUBLETREE  OREVENER 


i  'is  en: 

\^r 


"S? 


^ 


--«- 


-/7- 


SINGLETREE 


-17- 


-17- 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGIHAL  DESIGN 


3       C 


191 

DOUBLE  TREE  OR  EVENER  SPECIFICATIONS 

Plane  one  surface  of  the  material  perfectly  smooth  and  mark 
it  the  working  face  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  2).  Plane  one  edge 
perfectly  straight  and  square  for  the  working  edge  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  4).  Square  one  end  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  5).  Gauge 
the  width  which  the  evener  must  be  at  the  widest  point  (Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  6  or  7) ;  measure  and  cut  the  desired  length.  Lay 
out  the  width  at  each  end;  measure  carefully  and  locate  the  mid- 
dle; with  a  lead  pencil  square  a  line  across  the  workiri;  face  at  this 
point. 

You  will  notice  from  the  drawing  that  the  front  side  of  the 
evener  is  to  be  perfectly  straight,  with  the  corners  chamfered, 
while  the  rear  side  is  to  be  tapered,  or  rounded,  just  as  you  may 
see  fit.  Lay  out  these  lines  for  the  taper  on  the  rear  side,  saw 
them  out  with  the  rip  saw,  and  finish  with  the  plane;  round  this 
edge  slightly,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

On  the  front  side  lay  out  the  chamfer  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
8).  This  chamfer  may  be  cut  with  the  drawing  knife  (if  you  have 
none  use  a  pocket  knife  and  complete  it  with  a  small  plane).  Lo- 
cate and  bore  the  holes  as  shown  in  the  drawing  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  9). 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  remove  all  pencil  marks  and  rough 
places ;  finish  with  one  or  two  coats  of  linseed  oil. 


SINGLETREE. 

Although  the  singletree  does  not  have  any  perfectly  straight 
surfaces  it  will  be  well  to  prepare  a  working  face  and  working  edge 
from  which  to  lay  out  dimensions  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  1,  2, 
3,  4) .  Lay  out  the  tapered  shape  of  the  singletree,  and  saw  it  out 
with  the  rip  saw.  With  the  drawing  knife  or  plane  cl^mfer  the 
corners,  and  plane  the  singletree  to  the  proper  shape. 


192 

FINISHING. 

With  the  wood  file  or  sharp  steel  scraper  remove  all  tool  marks. 
It  may  be  smoothed  with  sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16). 
When  all  tool  marks  have  been  removed,  finish  with  one  or  two 
coats  of  linseed  oil. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

THREE-HORSE  EVENER. 

1.  In  the  Suggestions  for  Original  Design  the  idea  of  a  three- 
horse  evener  is  presented.     The  evener  is  very  similar  In  construc- 
tion to  the  doubletree  presented  in  the  lesson.     The  principal  dif- 
ference is  that  the  hole  for  the  king-pin  is  bored  at  one-third  the 
distance  from  the  end,  thus  giving  the  single  horse  sufficient  lever- 
age to  equal  the  team. 

NECK  YOKE. 

2.  The  problem  of  making  a  neck  yoke  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  shaving  and  shaping  the  form  of  a  singletree.     Of  course  the 
length  and  shape  of  this  project  will  not  be  the  same  but  the  prin- 
ciples of  construction  are  almost  identical. 


193 

FARM  GATE 


MCA'CIK  L 

pi 

MUXCIB.  IX!) 


MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48). 

7  pcs.  %"x4"x!2'       S  2  S  2  pcs.  7/8"x4i/2"xl2'  S  2  S 

5  dozen  8d  common  nails.  6  pcs.  %"x4"x  5'       S  2  S 

28-i4"x2^4"  carriage  bolts,  with  washers  and  nuts. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  visiting  farms  throughout  the  country  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  find  the  large  gates  in  bad  repair.  Many  a  farmer  has 
been  dragging  or  carrying  a  gate  open  and  shut  for  several  years 
when  a  few  minutes'  work  would  so  repair  the  gate  as  to  cause 
it  to  swing  freely  on  its  hinges. 

The  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  show  how  a  large  gate  can 
be  constructed  so  as  to  have  the  greatest  strength  and  the  long- 
est endurance.  The  size  of  the  gate  is  determined  by  the  open- 
ing for  which  it  is  intended,  but  the  principle  of  the  construction, 
such  as  the  bracing  and  bolting,  should  not  be  neglected. 


References : 


U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  126,  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings. 
Concrete  Fence  Posts.     Atlas  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Chicago. 
Concrete  for  the  Farmer.     Universal  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Chicago. 
Studies  in  Concrete,  in  Soils  and  Fertilizers,  Quear,  Muncie,  Ind. 
Ideas  for  the  Handy  Farmer.     Scientific  Am.,  May  29,  1909. 
Stables  and  Outbuildings.     Country  Life  in  America,  April,  1906. 
Gates,  Fences  and  Bridges.     Orange-Judd  Co.,  New  York. 
Farm  Conveniences.     Orange-Judd  Co.,  New  York. 


7— Voc. 


194 


FARM  GATE 


II 


SUGGEST/MS  FOR  ORI6IHAL  DESIGN 


FOR  EXTRA  WIPE  GATE. 


WIRED  To  PREVENT  SAGGING 


195 

FARM  GATE  SPECIFICATIONS 

In  making  a  farm  gate  it  is  not  customary  to  use  absolutely 
first-class  and  clear  material.  Sound  material,  although  it  may 
have  some  knots,  is  very  satisfactory.  It  is  not  good  economy  to 
use  strictly  clear  selected  stock  for  a  gate. 

THE  SLATS. 

On  the  drawing,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  bottom  and  top 
slats  are  41/2"  wide,  while  all  the  others  are  only  4"  wide.  These 
slats  are  a  little  wider  than  the  others  in  order  to  give  greater 
strength  to  the  strip  which  must  withstand  the  most  strain. 

Plane  the  edges  of  all  the  slats  perfectly  straight  and  square 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4) ;  cut  the  slats  the  proper  length. 

THE  UPRIGHTS. 

Cut  the  six  upright  pieces  exactly  the  same  length ;  plane  their 
edges;  shape  their  tops. 

ASSEMBLING. 

If  you  do  not  have  a  long  pair  of  saw  horses  on  which  to  build 
your  gate,  you  may  lay  the  material  flat  on  the  floor  very  satisfac- 
torily. On  the  upright  pieces,  lay  out  the  spacing  of  the  strips. 
Although  this  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  bolts,  you  will  find  it 
convenient  to  assemble  it  by  driving  one  nail  through  the  upright 
into  each  slat.  The  nails  must  not  be  driven  near  the  centers 
where  the  bolts  are  to  be,  or  they  will  interfere  with  the  boring. 
When  all  of  the  slats  and  the  uprights  have  been  properly  assem- 
bled, make  sure  the  gate  is  perfectly  square ;  test  in  several  places 
with  the  long  steel  square ;  measure  the  length  and  cut  the  braces. 
These  braces  should  be  made  to  fit  very  accurately. 

NOTE :  They  are  to  be  bolted  through  each  slat.  Sometimes 
braces  are  housed;  that  is,  notches  or  footings,  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  are  cut  in  the  uprights  to  receive  the  ends  of  the 
braces. 

If  you  care  to  make  your  gate  for  some  particular  opening  at 
home,  measure  the  opening,  and  change  the  dimensions  of  this 
drawing  to  suit  your  need. 

BORING. 

In  boring  for  the  bolts  it  will  be  well  to  bore  until  the  point  of 
the  bit  begins  to  show  through  on  the  opposite  side  of  all  the  holes ; 


196 

then  turn  the  gate,  and  complete  the  boring  from  the  opposite  side 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9).  Another  plan  of  boring  the  holes 
which  might  be  used  would  be  to  have  a  scrap  piece  of  material  on 
the  opposite  side  to  prevent  splintering  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  9) . 
Insert  a  bolt  in  each  hole,  put  on  the  washers,  run  the  nuts  on  very 
tight.  Prepare  the  latch  slide  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

FINISHING. 

The  gate  should  be  given  one  or  two  coats  of  paint  (Chapter 
IV.,  Paragraph  52). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

EXTRA  WIDE  GATE. 

1.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  provide  a  very  wide  gate.  This 
is  most  satisfactorily  done  by  the  use  of  a  double  gate,  as  shown 
in  the  suggestions.     This  suggestion  also  presents  another  method 
of  bracing  which  is  very  satisfactory.     In  hanging  the  double  gate 
a  short  post  extending  only  a  few  inches  above  the  ground  should 
be  set  in  such  a  position  that  when  the  gates  are  closed  one  or  both 
of  them  may  be  hooked  to  it  at  the  bottom. 

WIRING  A  GATE. 

2.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  gate  cheaply  and  poorly  made 
without  a  brace.     Such  a  gate  can  be  very  much  improved  by  hav- 
ing a  wire  put  on  it,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing.     This  wire  is  a 
complete  loop  extending  from  the  top  of  the  hinge  side  to  the  lower 
front  side  of  the  gate.     A  small  iron  rod,  or  bolt,  is  used  to  twist 
the  wire,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing;  the  wire  tightens  as  it  is 
twisted,  and  thus  raises  the  front  side  of  the  gate.     A  gate  so  re- 
paired will  give  good  service  for  a  long  time. 


197 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COMMUNITY  RESEARCH. 

No.  1.  How  many  different  sizes  and  kinds  of  nails  can  you 
find  used  about  your  home  or  farm  ?  You  will  find  it  interesting  to 
collect  one  of  each  and  acquaint  yourself  with  these  sizes.  Learn  to 
identify  as  many  nails  as  possible  by  sight.  You  will  be  surprised 
to  see  how  many  people  are  unable  to  tell  the  number  of  a  nail  by 
looking  at  it. 

No.  2.  See  if  you  can  find  any  of  the  old-fashioned  iron  cut 
nails  about  your  home.  Possibly  by  tearing  up  a  chest  or  box 
which  was  made  many  years  ago  you  will  be  able  to  find  some  of 
them.  See  if  you  can  find  out  why  cut  nails  have  gone  out  of  use 
and  why  the  wire  nails  have  taken  their  place.  What  advantages 
have  modern  wire  nails?  What  is  the  price  per  pound  of  2d,  8d 
and  16d  nails  at  your  local  hardware  store? 

No.  3.  Make  inquiries  of  some  of  the  older  people  of  your 
community  and  find  out  how  their  homes  were  lighted  years  ago. 
See  if  you  can  find  an  old-fashioned  candlestick,  candle  mould  or 
grease  lamp  anywhere  in  your  community.  Find  out  how  the  old 
handmade  candles  were  made.  If  you  can  find  any  of  these  old- 
fashioned  articles  in  the  community,  it  would  be  interesting  to 
take  them  to  school  for  general  discussion. 

No.  4.  Are  growing  plants  and  pot  flowers  considered  health- 
ful in  a  living  room  ?  Get  the  opinion  of  your  parents  on  this  sub- 
ject; see  what  you  can  find  out  fry  the  study  of  the  references 
given  in  this  text. 

No.  5.  How  many  different  birds  of  your  community  can 
you  recognize  by  sight?  How  many  can  you  recognize  by  hear- 
ing their  songs?  Are  the  people  of  your  community  friends  to 
the  birds?  Inquire  from  a  number  of  people  and  make  a  list  of 
the  benefits  which  they  recognize  as  coming  from  the  birds.  You 
will  be  surprised  to  learn  what  an  incorrect  impression  a  great 
many  people  have  regarding  birds. 

No.  6.  Study  as  many  as  possible  of  the  references  given  and 
make  a  list  of  all  of  the  birds  which  are  beneficial  to  us.  Make 
another  list  of  the  ones  considered  harmful. 

No.  7.  For  what  purpose  have  you  seen  a  wagon  jack  used? 
On  most  machinery  greasing  or  oiling  is  done  without  removing 
the  wheels.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  remove  a  wagon  or  buggy 
wheel  to  grease  it? 

No.  8.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  farmers  in  your  com- 
munity on  the  question  of  testing  their  seed  corn?  How  do  you 
think  it  could  be  proven  that  it  pays  to  test  seed  corn? 


198 
REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS. 

1.  In  building  a  bench,  what  is  the  purpose  of  the  Skirt 
Boards  ?    Do  you  know  of  any  other  article  on  which  Skirt  Boards 
could  be  used  in  similar  manner? 

2.  What  are  the  essential  principles  in  making  a  Nail  Tray? 
What  changes  would  be  desirable  in  constructing  it  for  knives  and 
forks? 

3.  What  points  should  be  given  special  attention  in  a  piece 
of  work  like  the  Candlestick,  Vase  or  Hand  Mirror? 

4.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  brackets  in  the  Flower  Pot 
Stand? 

5.  Name  three  other  articles  in  which  some  form  of  brackets 
may  be  used. 

6.  What  is  the  advantage  of  a  metal  roof  on  a  bird  house? 

7.  Name  three  or  four  kinds  of  wood  which  would  be  suit- 
able for  a  wagon  jack. 

8.  Name  three  kinds  of  wood  which  would  not  be  suitable 
for  a  wagon  jack.    Why  are  they  unfit  for  this  purpose? 

9.  How  many  board  feet  of  material  are  required  to  make 
the  Seedcorn  Tester? 

10.  What  kind  of  material  would  you  select  for  an  Evener 
or  Singletree?    What  are  the  qualities  of  wood  required  for  these 
articles  ? 

11.  How  many  feet  of  material  are  required  to  make  the 
Farm  Gate? 

12.  Figuring  the  cost  of  the  material  plus  the  cost  of  labor, 
for  how  much  must  your  Farm  Gate  be  sold  to  make  a  profit  of 
50  cents? 

13.  Why  should  the  bottom  and  the  top  slats  of  a  Farm  Gate 
be  especially  strong? 

14.  What  would  be  the  size  of  the  smallest  single  board  from 
which  the  Wash  Bench  could  be  made?    The  size  and  shape  of  the 
scraps  after  cutting  to  avoid  waste? 

15.  Suggest  two  articles,  either  of  which  could  be  made  from 
these  scrap  pieces. 

16.  What  kind  of  wood  would  you  select  for  a  Hand  Mirror? 
Why? 

17.  What  was  the  most  difficult  process  found  in  making  the 
Hand  Mirror? 

18.  What  kind  of  joints  are  used  in  making  the  Flower  Pot 
Stand? 


\    199 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS  (Concluded). 

19.  If  by  testing  your  seed  corn  you  find  that  one-third  of 
it  is  useless  as  seed,  in  what  ways  have  you  profited  by  knowing 
this? 

20.  What  points  should  be  considered  in  deciding  the  sort  of 
finish  to  use  on  an  article? 

21.  What  method  would  you  use  in  fastening  a  bird  house 
on  the  top  of  a  pole? 

22.  Name  and  explain  all  of  the  different  joints  which  you 
have  used  thus  far. 

23.  What  points  should  be  given  special  attention  in  work- 
ing out  original  designs  in  any  piece  of  work? 

24.  Why  should  a  drawing  be  made  before  attempting  to 
lay  out  any  piece  of  work? 

25.  Name  and  explain  all  the  laying  out  tools  which  you  have' 
used  thus  far. 

26.  How  many  different  cutting  tools  have  you  used? 


200 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SECTION  V 

THE  work  of  this  section  offers  wide  opportunity  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  originality  of  each  student.  If  the  tool  proc- 
esses already  set  forth  have  been  duly  mastered,  and  if  the 
work  of  design  and  drawing  has  had  proper  attention,  students 
should  have  a  fund  of  experience  and  judgment  from  which  to 
derive  ideas  for  modifications  of  the  work  to  suit  individual  taste. 

The  projects  vary  very  much  in  difficulty  in  order  to  provide 
for  the  speedy  and  adept  students  as  well  as  for  the  less  capable 
ones.  This  latitude  can,  of  course,  be  carried  a  great  deal  farther 
by  introducing  more  or  less  difficult  features  in  connection  with 
each  project  as  the  needs  of  a  particular  student  may  require. 

This  section  is  so  designed  as  to  make  possible  a  general  re- 
view of  practically  all  the  principles  previously  set  forth.  The  all- 
important  principle  of  squaring  stock  is,  of  course,  brought  out 
in  every  lesson;  this  must  not  be  neglected  simply  because  the 
work  has  passed  its  elementary  stage.  The  mortise  and  tenon 
joint  is  introduced  in  its  simplest  applications;  it  may  be  modi- 
fied and  developed  as  individual  needs  may  suggest. 

By  giving  a  little  thought  to  the  selection  of  projects  from 
this  section  it  will  be  possible  to  present  a  sequential  review  of 
many  of  the  most  important  processes  and  principles  of  elemen- 
tary bench  work.  The  simple  butt  joint,  miter,  half-lap,  mortise 
and  tenon,  dowel,  and  tongue  and  groove  are  all  found  in  their 
most  common  application  in  this  section. 

Students  should  not  be  allowed  to  leave  this  section  until 
they  have  acquired  considerable  skill  with  all  the  more  common 
tools  and  until  they  are  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  idea  that 
there  can  be  no  such  method  as  "cut  and  try"  in  good  work. 


201 


SHOE-POLISHING  BOX 


pcs. 
pcs. 
pc. 
pc. 


MATERIALS. 

Cypress    (Chap.    III.,  Par, 

46)  or  any  soft  wood. 

2  pcs.  7/8"xl2"xl3l/2w 

Legs. 
1  pc.    7/8"x  9"xl7i/2" 

Side. 

1  pc.   7/8"x  6i/2"xl7i/2" 

Side. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x  7"xl9" 
Top. 

Ipc.    7/8"x3i/2"xl7i/2" 

Drawer  front. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x  2i4"xl2" 

Drawer  sides. 
14"  (3-ply)  xlO"x!5"     Bottom  and  drawer  bottom. 

%"x  3g"xl2"     S  4  S   Drawer  carriers. 
Ii/2"x23/4"xl0"    Foot  rest.  2-1"  No.  12  F.  H.  B.  Screws. 


7/8"x2i/4"xl4" 

pair  !1/^"x21/2"  brass  butts. 

%,"  drawer  pull. 
21/2  dozen  8d  finishing  nails. 
1      dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 


2  pcs.  3/4"x3/4"xl2"     S  4  S 

Bottom  cleats. 
2  pcs.  %"x%"xl5"  S  4  S 

Bottom  cleats. 
2  dozen  11,4"  brads. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

A  shoe-polishing  box  is  very  convenient  in  caring  for  the  shoe 
brushes,  polishing  materials  and  polishing  cloths. 

The  box  given  in  this  lesson  is  large  and  strong  and  has  sev- 
eral attractive  features,  and  yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  construct.  As 
it  is  not  supposed  to  be  a  piece  of  living  room  furniture  it  is  not  de- 
signed in  accordance  with  all  the  principles  of  regular  cabinet  work. 


References : 


How  to  Make  a  Hundred  Useful  Things  for  the  Home,  Bingham.     The 

Century  Co.,  New  York. 

Home  Decoration,  Chas.  F.  Warner.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Forest  Planting,  Jarchow.     Orange-Judd  Co.,  New  York. 
Practical  Forestry,  Fuller.     Orange-Judd  Co.,  New  York. 


202 


SHOE  POLISHING  BOX 


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203 

SHOE  POLISHING  BOX  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  ENDS. 

Square  the  stock  for  one  of  the  end  pieces  (Chapter  II.,  Para- 
graphs 1-5).  Lay  out  and  make  the  end  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
With  the  wood  file  and  block  plane,  carefully  smooth  all  of  the  edges 
to  make  them  perfectly  square.  In  like  manner  prepare  the  second 
end  piece.  Make  sure  these  two  pieces  are  exactly  the  same  size  in 
every  way.  Always  keep  in  mind  that  in  any  kind  of  rectangular 
box  construction,  opposite  sides  must  be  identical  in  size  and  shape. 

SIDES. 

Notice  that  the  front  side  is  divided  info  two  parts ;  the  upper 
part  furnishes  the  front  of  the  box,  while  the  lower  portion  pro- 
vides the  front  of  the  drawer.  The  rear  side  of  the  shoe  polishing 
box  in  one  wide  piece.  Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5),  lay  out  and  make  these  side  pieces. 

THE  TOP. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  1,  2,  3,  4,  5).  Lay 
out  and  make  the  two  pieces  which  are  to  form  the  top;  be  sure 
that  they  are  perfectly  square,  and  that  the  two  edges  which  are  to 
be  hinged  together  fit  perfectly. 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  side  pieces  are  to  be  nailed  on  to  the  end  pieces.  Be  sure 
to  make  them  perfectly  even  on  the  outside.  Use  finishing  nails 
and  drive  them  carefully  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  21).  The  bot- 
tom of  the  shoe  polishing  box  is  to  be  made  of  one  piece  of  1/4" 
three-ply  material.  This  bottom  is  to  be  fastened  in  position  by 
small  strips  nailed  on  the  inside  of  the  ends  and  sides.  It  may  be 
well  to  fasten  these  strips  and  the  bottom  in  position  before  the  top 
is  put  on.  Fasten  the  stationary  side  of  the  top  by  nailing  it  down 
through  the  side  pieces.  Make  sure  it  projects  exactly  the  same  at 
each  end,  and  that  it  is  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  box.  Hinge 
the  other  half  on  to  this  piece.  Be  very  careful  to  cut  neat  gains 
in  which  to  bed  the  hinges,  so  that  the  joint  will  be  tight  when  the 
box  is  closed. 

FOOT  PIECE. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  1,  2,  3,  4,  5)  for 
the  foot  piece.  Lay  out  and  execute  the  shape  of  this  piece  of  ma- 
terial. Much  of  this  piece  of  work  can  be  done  with  the  drawing 
knife.  Finish  with  the  pocket  knife  and  wood  file.  Fasten  this 


204 

piece  in  position  with  screws.  It  must  not  be  fastened  too  near  the 
outside  edge,  or  it  will  strike  the  edge  of  the  box  when  it  is  being 
closed. 

THE  DRAWER. 

Plane  out  the  drawer  sides  and  the  back  piece,  making  sure 
they  are  exactly  the  same  width.  Assemble  with  nails  and  test 
with  the  try-square  to  make  sure  that  it  is  perfectly  square.  Nail 
a  three-ply  bottom  on  to  this  drawer  frame.  Turn  the  box  upside 
down  and  nail  the  drawer  carriers  in  position.  Do  not  nail  the 
drawer  carriers  too  tight,  or  the  drawer  will  not  work  well. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  block  plane  smooth  any  joints  which  may  not  be 
perfectly  even.  With  a  steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16), 
remove  all  pencil  and  tool  marks.  Set  all  nails  slightly  below  the 
surface;  putty  the  holes;  smooth  with  fine  sandpaper  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  17).  Stain  the  desired  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph 
54)  ;  finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57)  or  varnish 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  58).  When  the  finish  is  dry,  add  the 
drawer  knob. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

MORTISED  AND  TENONED  SHOE  POLISHING  BOX. 

1.  Suggestion  No.  1  gives  a  plan  of  construction  which  will 
make  a  very  excellent  shoe  polishing  box.     This  is  a  much  more 
difficult  design  but  is  worth  while  because  of  the  excellent  cabinet 
principles  involved. 

SIMPLE  SHOE  POLISHING  BOX. 

2.  Suggestion  No.  2  shows  a  very  simple  plan  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  shoe  polishing  box.     It  is  assembled  with  plain  butt 
joints.     This  plan  of  simple  box  construction  is  correct  in  every 
detail,  and  at  the  same  time  has  no  particular  difficulties. 

MEASURING  CRATE. 

3.  The  principle  of  plain  box  construction  can  be  applied  in 
innumerable  ways.     A  very  practical  problem  is  found  in  working 
out  proper  dimensions,  and  making  a  peck,  half-bushel  or  bushel 
crate. 


205 


TABOURET 


MATERIALS. 

Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29),  plain  or 
quartered. 

4  pcs.  Ii/2"xll/2"xl8"     S4S  Legs. 

2  pcs.    7/8"x6     "xll"     S2S  Shelf. 

2  pcs.    y8"x6i/2"xl3"     S  2  S  Top. 
1  pc.    1/2"  dowel  24"  long. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

A  tabouret  is  a  very  useful  article  as  a  stand  for  a  flower  pot, 
vase  or  any  other  ornament.  There  are  a  great  many  styles  of 
tabouret  construction,  many  of  which  are  equally  good;  the  size, 
shape  and  general  design  are  largely  matters  of  personal  taste. 

In  working  out  a  design  for  your  tabouret  be  sure  it  is  suffi- 
ciently substantial  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  Do 
not  undertake  a  form  of  construction  which  is  too  difficult  for  you ; 
a  simple  design  well  made  is  much  better  than  a  difficult  one  poorly 
constructed. 

The  staining  and  polishing  should  be  made  to  correspond  with 
the  furniture  of  the  room  in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  In  any  piece  of 
household  furniture  the  finish  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  work 
and  should  be  given  considerable  time  and  attention. 


References: 


The  Tabouret,  Noyes,  Construction  and  Design.  Manual  Arts  Press, 
Peoria,  111. 

Part  One,  Mission  Furniture,  Windsor.  Popular  Mechanics  Co.,  Chi- 
cago. 

Furniture  Repairing,  Taylor.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 


TABOURET 


-/Ji' 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESI6H 


NO./ 


H0.2 


M0.3 


207 

TABOURET  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  TOP. 

This  top  is  to  be  made  of  two  pieces  with  the  edges  glued  and 
doweled  together.  It  is  inconvenient  to  get  a  board  wide  enough 
to  make  this  in  one  piece ;  furthermore,  a  glued  up  top  is  much  bet- 
ter because  it  does  not  warp  so  badly.  In  gluing  up  the  top,  you 
should  arrange  the  boards  so  as  to  match  the  grain  as  nearly  as 
possible.  Plane  the  edges  which  are  to  come  together  until  they 
fit  perfectly  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  4).  Lay  them  on  your  bench 
top,  and  test  to  make  sure  that  the  joint  will  be  perfect.  Lay  out 
and  bore  for  the  dowels  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  72;  Chapter  II., 
Paragraphs  13  and  18).  Clamp  securely,  and  leave  the  glued  joint 
at  least  twelve  hours  to  harden. 

THE  SHELF. 

The  shelf  board  is  to  be  glued  up  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
top.  Prepare  this  piece  so  the  glue  joint  can  harden  at  the  same 
time  with  the  top. 

THE  LEGS. 

Although  the  legs  are  furnished  S  4  S,  you  should  go  over  them 
with  a  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  very  thin  shaving  to  make  them 
perfectly  square  and  smooth.  Finish  with  a  steel  scraper  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraph  16).  Lay  out  and  cut  the  length  of  the  legs  as 
shown  in  the  drawing  (the  legs  may  be  cut  in  a  miter  box  if  you 
have  one  which  you  can  set  at  the  desired  angle).  Shape  the  top 
end  of  the  legs  very  carefully ;  if  you  have  no  miter  box,  this  may 
be  done  with  a  back  saw  and  finished  with  a  wood  file. 

SHAPING  THE  TOP. 

When  the  glue  is  thoroughly  dry,  with  the  compasses  lay  out 
the  circular  top.  Saw  this  out  with  a  compass  saw  or  turning 'saw. 
With  a  wood  file  carefully  square  the  edge  all  the  way  around. 
This  must  be  perfectly  done,  for  the  edge  of  the  material  cannot 
be  well  finished  unless  all  tool  marks  are  removed. 

Notice  that  the  legs  are  to  be  gained  into  the  top  about  half 
their  thickness.  Lay  out  these  gains  the  exact  width  so  as  to  re- 
ceive the  legs  and  make  the  joints  fit  snugly.  Saw  these  gains  the 
required  depth ;  with  a  very  sharp  chisel  cut  out  the  wood,  making 
each  gain  smooth  and  square.  Fasten  the  legs  in  position  with 
dowels  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 


208 

SHAPING  THE  SHELF. 

The  shelf  is  to  be  made  perfectly  square  with  the  corners  cut 
off  where  it  fits  against  the  legs.  These  joints  are  to  be  fastened 
with  dowels. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  all  joints  with  glue,  and  clamp  securely.  Clean  off 
any  surplus  glue. 

FINISHING. 

When  the  work  is  all  assembled,  give  it  a  final  cleaning  with 
a  sharp  steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16)  and  sandpaper 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  Remove  all  pencil,  tool  marks  or 
rough  places.  Stain  the  desired  color  (Chap.  IV.,  Paragraph  54). 
This  piece  of  work  should  have  a  good  coat  of  filler  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  55).  Shellac  may  be  substituted  for  the  filler;  it  may 
then  be  given  a  French  polish  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57),  or 
varnish  finish  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  58). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

STRAIGHT  T4BOURET. 

1.  Suggestion  No.  1  shows  a  very  simple  yet  pleasing  design 
for  a  straight  tabouret. 

STRAIGHT-KEYED  TABOURET. 

2.  The  tabouret  shown  in  suggestion  No.  2  presents  the  idea 
of  the  keyed  mortise  and  tenon  construction.     This  is  a  very  popu- 
lar idea,  the  design  of  which  may  be  modified  to  suit  one's  taste. 

TABOURET  WITH  SLANTING  LEGS. 

3.  Suggestion  No.  3  introduces  the  idea  of  slanting  legs  in 
tabouret  construction.     This  feature  makes  the  keyed  mortise  and 
tenon  construction  a  little  more  difficult. 

STAND  TABLE. 

4.  The  idea  of  a  four-legged  round-top  tabouret,  presented  in 
this  lesson,  with  very  little  modifications,  can  be  employed  in  mak- 
ing a  very  pleasing  round  top  card  or  game  table.     The  stock  for 
the  legs  should  be  somewhat  heavier  than  for  the  tabouret.     Such  a 
table  should  be  about  28"  or  29"  high. 


209 

FOOT  STOOL 


1  pc.  tape  to  match  78"  long. 

3  dozen  tacks  to  match. 

5  dozen  carpet  tacks,  8-oz. 

4  castors. 


MATERIALS. 
Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29). 

4  pcs.  134"xl34"xlO;/  S  4  S 
Legs. 

2  pcs.     %"xiy2"x!5"  S  4  S 
Cross  rails. 

2  pcs.     34"xli/2"xl2"   s  4  S 
Cross  rails. 

Any  soft  wood. 

2  pcs.     7/8"x2"xl5" 
Top  cross  rails. 

2  pcs.     7/8"x2"xl2" 
Top  cross  rails. 

2  pcs.     % "x5"x!4"  Top. 

1  pc.    upholstering     mate- 
rial 17"x21".    Top  cover. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

A  foot  stool  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  comfortable  little 
articles  of  household  furniture.  Its  variations  in  design  are  in- 
numerable, ranging  from  the  mere  cushion  or  floor  pillow  to  very 
heavy  and  elaborate  cabinet  work. 

The  stool  given  in  this  lesson  is  one  of  the  standard  ways  of 
constructing  a  stool,  seat  or  even  a  straight  chair.  You  should 
therefore  master  its  principles  because  you  will  employ  them 
often  in  future  work. 

The  upholstering  presents  a  problem  which  is  not  particu- 
larly difficult,  but  calls  for  careful  effort.  On  account  of  the  great 
expense  of  leather,  other  upholstering  materials  have  been  de- 
vised which  are  much  less  expensive  and  yet  very  satisfactory, 
being  both  dust-proof  and  durable. 


References : 


Problems  in  Furniture  Making,  Crawshaw.     Manual  Arts  Press,  Peo- 

ria,  111. 

Mechanical  Training  for  Common  Schools,  Allen. 
A  Boy's  Workshop,  Cragin. 
Upholstering  and  Cabinet  Making,  Hodgson.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 


210 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESI6N 


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211 

FOOT  STOOL  SPECIFICATIONS 

LEGS. 

Although  the  legs  are  furnished  S  4  S,  they  will  need  to  be 
planed  slightly  with  a  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  very  thin  shaving, 
and  finished  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16) . 
The  ends  of  the  legs  might  be  cut  in  the  miter  box,  and  finished 
with  a  wood  file.  Be  sure  all  the  legs  are  cut  exactly  the  same 
length.  This  piece  of  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  mortise  and 
tenon  joints  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  66).  Measure  and  lay  out 
the  mortises  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Examine  the  legs  in  pairs, 
and  be  sure  that  the  mortises  are  all  properly  laid  out  before  be- 
ginning to  cut  any  of  them,  then  cut  them. 

THE  BOTTOM  CROSS  RAILS. 

The  cross  rails  should  be  resurfaced  and  finished  with  a  steei 
scraper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16).  Lay  out  the  tenons  exactly 
to  fit  the  mortises  you  have  cut  in  the  legs.  Saw  out  the  tenons 
(Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  14).  In  laying  put  the  lengths  of  the 
cross  rails,  be  sure  the  opposite  sides  are  exactly  the  same  length. 

THE  TOP  CROSS  RAILS. 

In  like  manner  cut  the  top  cross  rails  of  the  soft  wood  material. 
You  will  notice  that  all  of  the  relish  is  on  the  top  side  of  the  top 
rails ;  this  is  arranged  in  this  manner  to  avoid  cutting  the  mortises 
so  close  to  the  top  ends  of  the  leg.  Make  sure  that  these  rails  are 
exactly  the  same  length  between  shoulders  as  the  corresponding 
bottom  rails. 

ASSEMBLING. 

All  joints  are  to  be  glued.  Put  the  cross  rails  in  their  proper 
position  and  assemble  one  pair  of  legs;  clamp  them  to  make  sure 
the  joints  fit  closely.  Test  with  the  try-square  to  be  sure  they 
are  perfectly  square.  In  like  manner  assemble  the  other  pair  of 
legs.  Glue  the  end  rails  in  their  proper  positions,  thus  completing 
the  assembling  of  the  stool  frame.  Clamp  securely.  In  any  glued 
up  piece  of  work  of  this  kind,  be  very  careful  that  it  is  in  line  in 
every  direction;  sight  through  to  see  that  all  the  cross  rails  stand 
parallel. 

THE  TOP. 

The  top  is  to  be  made  of  soft  wood.  It  will  not  be  necessary 
to  surface  it  because  it  is  to  be  covered  with  upholstering  material. 
These  pieces  are  to  be  nailed  in  position  between  the  top  cross  rails. 


212 

Be  sure  that  the  stool  is  perfectly  square  when  the  top  is  nailed 
in  position. 

FINISHING. 

The  finishing  should  be  done  before  the  upholstering  is  put  on. 
With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  and  sandpaper  remove  all  tool  marks, 
pencil  marks  or  rough  places  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  16).  Stain 
the  work  the  desired  color.  As  this  is  a  piece  of  furniture,  it  should 
be  very  carefully  finished.  After  staining  the  desired  color  (Chap- 
ter IV.,  Paragraph  54),  add  a  coat  of  filler  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph 
55) ;  finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57),  or  varnish 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  58). 

UPHOLSTERING. 

After  the  finish  is  thoroughly  dry,  do  the  upholstering.  A 
few  layers  of  cotton  batting  should  be  used  to  give  the  rounded 
appearance,  and  to  form  the  cushion  before  the  upholstering  mate- 
rial is  put  on.  This  batting  should  be  evenly  spread  over  the  top 
of  the  stool.  Carefully  stretch  the  upholstering  material,  and  tack 
it  with  carpet  tacks  on  the  under  side  of  the  top  rail.  Be  very 
careful  about  cutting  out  around  the  corners  to  make  it  fit  the  legs 
neatly ;  tighten  it  evenly  in  every  direction  to  avoid  wrinkles.  Trim 
with  the  tape  and  ornamental  upholstering  tacks  as  indicated  in 
the  photograph. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SIMPLE  FOOT  STOOL. 

1.  Suggestion  No.  1  shows  a  plan  of  constructing  a  very  sim- 
ple mortised  and  tenoned  foot  stool.    It  may  be  upholstered,  or  have 
a  hardwood  top,  as  desired. 

BRAIDED  TOP  STOOL. 

2.  A  very  pleasing  stool  or  seat  can  be  easily  constructed  in 
accordance  with  suggestion  No.  2.     The  top  is  to  be  braided  of  cord 
of  some  suitable  quality. 

STRAIGHT  CHAIR. 

3.  The  principles  set  forth  in  the  construction  of  this  stool  are 
very  similar  to  those  employed  in  the  construction  of  a  simple, 
straight  chair.     One  pair  of  legs  would  have  to  be  sufficiently  long 
to  extend  above  the  seat,  and  provide  the  back.     Other  modifica- 
tions should  be  worked  out  in  your  drawing  before  undertaking 
the  work. 


213 


FOLDING  GAME  TABLE 


MATERIALS. 
Chestnut  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  35)  or  any  soft  wood. 

Top. 


Sufficient  number  of  pieces  to  make  I4"x31"x31"  S  2  S 
2  pcs.     %"x2     "x30"     Top  braces. 

Legs. 

Leg  braces. 

Center  braces. 

Cross  braces. 


2-21/2"  No.  12  R.  H.  Blued  Screws. 
"  Brads. 


4  pcs.  13/8"xl3/8"x27" 
2  pcs.  13/8"xl3/8"x  9" 

1  PC.      13/8"xl3/8"xl8" 

2  pcs.  1     "x3iA"x25" 
12-134"  No,  10  F.  H.  B.  Screws. 

3  pr.  Hinges. 

36-1/2"  No.  6  F.  H.  B.  Screws. 
3-13.4"  No.  12  F.  H.  B.  Screws. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  need  of  some  sort  of  small,  easily  handled  table  quite  fre- 
quently arises  in  connection  with  games  or  sewing  work.  A  fold- 
ing table  which  will  occupy  but  little  space  when  closed  and  can 
readily  be  moved  from  the  house  to  the  porch  or  lawn  is  a  handy 
article  of  household  furniture. 

This  table  is  sufficiently  large  to  be  quite  serviceable,  and  while 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  a  folding  table  will  be  as  rigid  as  one 
which  is  permanently  built,  yet  if  carefully  constructed  it  will  be 
reasonably  solid. 


References : 


Home  Furniture  Making,  G.  A.  Raeth.     Fredrick  Drake  Co.,  Chicago. 
Mission  Furniture — Part  III.,  Windsor.     Popular  Mechanics  Co. 


214 


a 

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i1 

it  t 


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m~ 


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h 

j>f 


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lk 


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FOLDING 
GAME  TABLE 


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IL12 


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^fg"frJ 


7?P 


215 

FOLDING  GAME  TABLE  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  TOP. 

As  the  top  is  to  be  made  of  several  pieces  glued  together,  you 
should  prepare  it  first  in  order  that  the  glue  may  have  plenty  of 
time  to  dry.  The  edges  of  these  boards  must  be  perfectly  fitted. 
These  should  be  joined  with  dowels,  but  the  dowels  are  sometimes 
omitted.  However,  the  top  will  be  very  much  stronger  if  the  dowels 
are  used.  As  this  material  is  furnished  S  2  S,  and  since  it  will  be 
necessary  to  resurface  it  after  it  is  glued,  you  will  not  need  to  re- 
surface it  now.  Carefully  plane  the  edges  of  all  the  pieces  (Chap. 
II.,  Par.  4) .  Lay  the  pieces  in  position  on  your  bench  top  and  press 
them  closely  together  to  see  whether  all  the  joints  fit  perfectly. 
When  they  are  properly  fitted,  lay  out  and  bore  for  the  dowels 
(Chap.  II.,  Par.  18).  Glue  the  top.  Clamp  it  and  leave  it  to  dry 
for  at  least  twelve  hours.  All  surplus  glue  should  be  cleaned  off 
before  it  hardens. 

THE  SKIRT  BOARDS. 

The  skirt  boards  serve  as  battens  to  hold  the  top  perfectly 
straight.  Square  the  stock  for  these  pieces  very  carefully  (Chap. 
II.,  Par.  2,  3,  4).  Resurface  them  on  all  sides.  Cut  them  the  re- 
quired length  and  shape  at  the  ends.  You  will  note  from  the  draw- 
ing that  the  skirt  boards  are  to  be  fastened  with  screws.  You  will 
also  observe  that  these  screws  are  buried  in  the  edge  of  the  skirt 
board  about  half  its  width.  In  spacing  the  screws  arrange  them  so 
that  none  will  strike  the  joints  in  the  top.  These  holes  must  not 
be  bored  too  deep  or  they  will  allow  the  screws  to  extend  entirely 
through  the  top. 

THE  LEGS. 

Although  the  material  for  the  legs  is  furnished  S  4  S,  you 
should  test  them  carefully  with  a  try-square  and  resurface  them 
on  all  sides,  making  them  perfectly  square.  (Chap.  II.,  Par.  2,  3,  4.) 
Cut  them  the  required  length.  The  legs  should  be  tapered  slightly 
as  indicated  in  the  drawing.  If  desired,  the  corners  may  be  cham- 
fered (Chap.  II.,  Par.  8).  The  legs  are  to  be  fastened  with  cross 
rails  with  mortise  and  tenon  joint  (Chap.  V.,  Par.  66).  The  exact 
size  of  these  mortises  is  not  important.  It  is  therefore  not  given 
on  the  drawing.  It  should  be  about  %"  or  1/2".  You  might  suit  it 
to  the  size  of  the  bit  and  chisel. 

THE  CROSS  RAILS. 

The  cross  rails  are  to  join  the  pair  of  legs  firmly.  Plane  these 
pieces  the  exact  width  shown  in  the  drawing.  Form  the  tenons  on 
the  ends  to  fit  the  mortise  in  the  legs.  (Chap.  II.,  Par.  14.)  Notice 
that  these  cross  rails  are  not  the  same  length.  One  is  made  enough 
shorter  than  the  other  so  that  this  pair  of  legs  will  fold  between 
the  opposite  pair. 


216 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  the  two  pairs  of  legs  by  gluing  the  tenons  in  their 
proper  mortise.  When  they  are  assembled  they  may  be  bored  and 
pinned  (Chap.  V,  Par.  66),  or  two  small  nails  may  be  driven  into 
each  tenon. 

The  skirt  board  should  be  fastened  to  the  top  with  glue  and  also 
with  screws  as  already  indicated. 

Each  pair  of  legs  is  to  be  attached  to  the  top  with  three  hinges, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

CENTER  BATTEN. 

The  center  batten  is  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  two  braces. 
It  should  be  cut  just  long  enough  to  fit  between  the  two  cross  rails 
of  the  legs  when  the  table  is  folded.  It  is  fastened  at  the  top  with 
screws,  as  indicated  in  the  drawing.  It  should  also  be  glued. 

THE  BRACES. 

The  purpose  of  the  braces  is  to  lock  the  legs  in  position  when 
the  table  is  standing.  The  study  of  the  drawing  will  show  that  they 
pivot  on  the  screws  so  as  to  turn  and  allow  the  table  to  fold.  They 
also  hold  the  legs  in  position  when  the  table  is  folded.  These  braces 
should  be  very  carefully  made  and  adjusted,  for  much  of  the 
strength  of  the  table  depends  on  the  accuracy  with  which  they  are 
placed.  The  two  very  long  screws  are  to  be  used  to  attach  these 
braces. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper,  remove  all  tool  marks  and  other 
rough  places  from  the  surface  of  the  table.  Smooth  with  fine 
sandpaper  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  17).  Stain  it  the  desired  color 
(Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54)  ;  finish  with  shellac  (Chapter  IV., 
Paragraph  57)  or  varnish  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  58). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SEWING  TABLE. 

1.  A  sewing  table  for  home  use  may  be  made  on  the  same 
plan  as  this  folding  game  table.     It  would  be  desirable  to  make  it 
considerably  longer,  and  perhaps  use  a  little  heavier  stock  in  con- 
structing the  legs. 

PAPER  HANGER'S  TABLE. 

2.  The  principle  of  a  folding  table  is  practically  employed  in 
making  a  paper  hanger's  pasting  table.     Such  a  table  is  usually 
about  18"  wide  and  about  8  feet  long.     Each  pair  of  legs  should 
have  cross  braces,  and  there  should  be  some  means  of  bracing  and 
fastening  it  rigid  when  in  use. 


217 


STEPLADDER 


MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  48)  or  any 
soft  wood. 

2  pcs.  %"x45/8"x5'  2"  S  2  S  Sides. 

4  pcs.  7/8"x5i/2"xl6i/2"      S  2  S  Steps. 

1  pc.  7/8"x7"xl7"  S  2  S  Top. 

2  pcs.  7/8"xl3/4"x5'  S  2  S  Legs. 

1  pc.     7/8"x2i4"xl5"  S  2  S  Top  strips. 

2  pcs.  3/8"xli/2"x3'  4"  S  2  S  Leg  brace. 

2  pcs.  3/8"xli/2"xl5"  S  2  S  Leg  brace. 
1  pair  Ii4"x3"  hinges  with  screws. 

4  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 

3  dozen  114"  brads. 
l-Va"  screw  eye. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

One  of  the  handiest  articles  about  the  home,  particularly  in 
housecleaning  and  fruit  season,  is  the  stepladder. 

This  stepladder  is  so  designed  as  to  present  the  greatest  pos- 
sible strength  and  the  most  serviceable  features.  While  it  is  not 
unduly  heavy,  yet  it  is  sufficiently  strong  to  stand  many  years  of 
hard  use.  The  top  step  is  made  wide  enough  to  provide  a  satisfac- 
tory place  to  set  a  basin  of  water  or  a  paint  bucket. 

The  method  of  attaching  the  legs  with  hinges  affords  strength 
which  can  hardly  be  provided  by  any  other  means.  In  the  sug- 
gestions you  will  see  some  other  ideas  for  ladder  construction,  but 
they  are  not  so  substantial  as  those  given  in  the  working  drawing. 


References : 


Seven  Hundred  Things  for  Boys  to  Do.     Popular  Mechanics  Co.,  Chi- 
cago. 

Modern  Carpentry  and  Joinery,  Hodgson. 
The  Handy  Man's  Book,  Hasluck.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 


218 


STEP  LADDER 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGN 


METHOD  OF  FASTENING  LEGS  AHP  STEPS 


FOLP/NG  STEP  LAVPER  STOOL 


219 

STEPLADDER  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SIDES. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  side  pieces  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs 
2,  3  and  4)  ;  lay  out  and  cut  them  the  dimensions  shown  in  the 
drawing.  Make  sure  that  the  two  side  pieces  are  exactly  the  same 
size.  (The  opening  cut  in  each  side  piece  makes  the  stepladder 
somewhat  lighter  without  making  it  any  weaker;  it  also  improves 
the  appearance  of  the  ladder) .  Lay  out  the  spaces  for  the  gains. 
Notice  that  the  steps  are  to  stand  level  when  the  ladder  is  open. 
It  will  be  well  to  set  the  T-bevel  to  this  angle  and  use  it  in  laying 
out  these  gains.  Be  sure  not  to  lay  out  the  gains  any  wider  than 
the  thickness  of  the  step  material  or  the  joints  will  not  fit  snugly. 
Lay  out  and  cut  these  gains  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  61). 

THE  STEPS. 

Plane  the  edges  of  the  steps  to  the  angle  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing. You  should  use  the  T-bevel  again  as  you  did  in  making  the 
gains.  Cut  the  top  step  the  correct  size;  cut  the  bottom  step  the 
correct  length.  You  will  notice  that  the  stepladder  is  a  little  nar- 
rower at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom.  For  this  reason  the  steps 
are  not  all  the  same  length,  and  in  order  to  get  the  length  of  each, 
you  should  assemble  the  work  as  follows:  Nail  the  top  and  the 
bottom  steps  in  their  respective  positions.  Make  sure  that  the 
sides  are  perfectly  straight  and  measure  the  length  of  each  of 
the  other  steps  separately.  The  steps  are  to  be  fastened  in  posi- 
tion by  nailing  through  the  side  pieces.  Use  finishing  nails  and 
set  them  slightly  below  the  surface. 

THE  LEGS. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3  and  4) .  Make 
the  legs  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  Notice  that  the 
legs  are  attached  to  the  stepladder  with  two  hinges,  and  that  the 
hinges  are  planted  on  a  cross  rail  which  is  nailed  to  the  side  pieces, 
and  also  down  through  the  top.  This  makes  a  very  strong  piece 
of  construction.  Prepare  this  piece  and  nail  it  firmly  in  position. 
Hinge  the  legs  in  position  with  screws,  making  them  exactly  even 
with  the  outside  of  the  side  pieces. 

With  the  ladder  in  a  closed  position,  and  the  legs  exactly  even 
with  the  side  pieces  their  full  length,  you  can  nail  the  cross  braces 
on  to  the  legs.  Be  sure  that  the  cross  braces  are  straight;  fit  all 


220 

the  joints  accurately.  This  will  not  only  add  to  the  appearance, 
but  to  the  strength  of  your  ladder.  The  ladder  is  to  be  kept  from 
spreading  when  in  use  by  a  small  rope  fastened  to  a  screw  eye, 
as  indicated  in  the  drawing. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  plane  set  to  take  a  very  thin  shaving,  go  over 
the  edges  of  the  steps,  if  necessary,  and  plane  them  down  to  the 
exact  width  of  the  side  pieces.  Plane  any  other  joints  which  may 
not  be  absolutely  even.  Smooth  with  sandpaper,  putty  the  nail 
holes;  stain  it  the  desired  color  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  54)  ; 
add  a  coat  or  two  of  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57).  If 
the  stepladder  is  to  be  used  mostly  out  of  doors,  it  would  be  well 
to  give  it  a  coat  of  paint  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

STEPLADDER  WITH  BOLTED  LEGS. 

1.  A  stepladder  may  have  the  legs  attached  with  two  small 
bolts,  as  shown  in  the  suggestions.     This  is  an  easy  method  of  con- 
struction, but  not  so  substantial  as  the  method  presented  in  the 
lesson. 

STEPLADDER  STOOL. 

2.  A  handy  folding  stool,  which  will  also  serve  the  purpose  of 
a  short  stepladder,  can  be  easily  made  in  accordance  with  the  idea 
presented  in  the  suggestions. 


221 

AUTOMOBILE  CREEPER 


MATERIALS. 
Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29). 

4  pcs.  3/8"xl%"x38"     Slats,  hard  wood. 

2  pcs.  %"xl%"x30"     Slats,  hard  wood. 

3  pcs.  %"x2"x!6"         Cross  pieces,  hard  wood. 
1  pc.     %"x4"xlO"         Head  piece,  soft  wood. 

4  dozen  6d  box  nails.  30"  gimp. 
11/2  dozen  8-oz.  tacks.  12  uph.  nails. 

1  set  castors.  Enameled  muslin,  10"xl5". 

4-3/16"xll,4"  stove  bolts.  8  screws,  %"  No.  8. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

People  who  have  had  any  experience  with  automobiles  know 
that  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  get  under  the  car  to  do  some  sort 
of  cleaning,  adjusting  or  repair  work.  This  is  always  an  incon- 
venient and  unpleasant  task,  not  only  because  it  is  uncomfortable, 
but  because  it  soils  one's  clothes  so  badly. 

This  "automobile  creeper"  furnishes  a  very  handy  solution  to 
the  problem  of  providing  a  way  to  get  under  a  car  easily  and  quick- 
ly with  least  damage  to  the  clothing. 

It  is  not  the  intention  to  make  this  a  piece  of  cabinet  construc- 
tion, but  nevertheless  it  should  be  accurately  laid  out  and  carefully 
executed.  Because  a  piece  of  work  is  to  be  used  at  the  barn  or 
garage  is  no  reason  why  it  may  be  incorrectly  or  carelessly  con- 
structed. 


References : 


Automobile  Handbook,  Elliott  Brookes.     Fredrick  Drake  Co.,  Chicago. 
Automobile   Catechism  and   Repair  Manual,   Swingle.     Fredrick   Drake 

Co.,  Chicago. 

Care  and  Operation  of  Automobiles,  Hall.     Am.  Tech.  Society,  Chicago. 
The  Gasoline  Automobile,  Longheed  and  Hall.     Am.  Tech.  Society,  Chi- 
cago. 


222 


AUTOMOBILE  CREEPER 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGN 


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223 

AUTOMOBILE  CREEPER  SPECIFICATIONS 

BOTTOM  CROSS  PIECES. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  bottom  cross  pieces  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraphs  2,  3  and  4).  From  the  end  view  you  will  notice  that 
these  pieces  are  to  be  curved  out  on  the  top  edge  to  receive  the 
slats.  Cut  them  the  required  length;  lay  out  one  and  saw  it  out 
with  a  compass  saw;  smooth  with  a  wood  file;  use  this  one  for 
a  pattern,  lay  out  and  make  the  others  just  like  it. 

* 
THE  SLATS. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II. ,  Paragraphs  2,  3  and  4)  and 
make  the  slats  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  HEAD  REST. 

The  head  rest  is  to  have  a  solid  wood  base  upholstered  with 
enameled  muslin.  Plane  out  this  wood  block  for  the  base  a  little 
less  than  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  Upholster  it 
neatly,  covering  it  with  enameled  muslin;  it  may  be  padded  with 
excelsior  or  cotton  batting,  whichever  is  most  convenient.  Trim 
with  gimp  and  upholstering  nails. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Space  the  bottom  cross  braces  properly,  nail  the  slats  in  posi- 
tion ;  make  sure  they  are  square  with  the  cross  braces. 

Fasten  the  upholstered  head  rest  in  position  with  screws  or 
nails  from  the  bottom  side  of  the  slat  into  the  wood  base  of  the 
rest. 

Attach  the  castors  to  the  bottom  cross  rails,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing.  These  castors  are  to  be  fastened  with  stove  bolts. 

FINISHING. 

Finish  with  a  'coat  of  good  oil  stain  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph 
54) .  A  good  coat  of  shellac  or  hard  varnish  will  keep  the  stain 
from  rubbing  off. 


224 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

AUTOMOBILE  CREEPER  WITH  TOOL  SHELF. 

1.  In  the  suggestions  will  be  found  an  idea  for  adding  a  shelf 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  tools.  This  shelf  may  be  added  on 
either  side  of  the  creeper ;  if  desired  two  shelves  may  be  used,  one 
on  each  side. 


225 


SHOP  TOOL  CASE 


4  pcs.  7/8"x2i/2"x22"         S  2  S 

Door  battens. 
2  pcs.  7/8"xl3/4"x33" 

Door  braces. 
2  prs.    T    hinges 

screws. 

2  spring  catches. 
6  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 
12  dozen  2d  lath  nails. 


S  2  S 


with 


MATERIALS. 

Yellow  Pine  (Chap.  III.,  Par. 
48)  or  any  soft  wood. 

3  pcs.  7/8"xlO"x36i/2"       S  2  S 
Side  and  partition. 

2  pcs.  7/8"xlO"x48i/2"       S  2  S 
Bottom  and  top. 

3  pcs.  3/8"xl3/4"X35"         S  2  S 
Casing  strips. 

1  pc.     3/8"x  13/4"x48i/2"    S  2  S 
Top  casing. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x9"x24"  S2S 
Shelves. 

1  pc.     7/8"xli/2"x48"         S  2  S 

Rabbet  strips. 
30  pcs.  3/8"X4"x36"  S  2  S 

Beaded    ceiling,  back    and 

doors. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  the  shop,  barn,  garage  or  tool  shed  it  is  very  convenient  to 
have  some  sort  of  tool  case  on  the  wall.  This  plan  of  caring  for 
tools  not  only  keeps  them  in  good  condition,  but  also  saves  room. 

This  shop  tool  case  is  very  simple  in  construction;  it  may  be 
built  of  almost  any  dimensions  you  may  desire.  It  would  be  well 
for  you  to  measure  the  space  which  you  have  for  a  tool  case  and 
then  build  your  case  the  proper  size  to  fit  the  space. 

This  case  illustrates  the  principle  of  making  a  simple  batten 
door ;  you  will  also  notice  a  brace  extending  from  one  batten  to  the 
other;  this  is  to  prevent  sagging.  If  you  have  any  sagging  doors 
about  your  home  buildings  you  should  straighten  them  and  put  in 
braces  as  illustrated  in  this  lesson. 


References : 


S--YOC. 


A  Boy's  Workshop.     David  Williams  Co.,  New  York. 

Jobbing  Work  for  the  Carpenter,  Crussell.     David  Williams  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Saw  Filing,  Grimshaw.     Book  Supply  Co.,  Chicago. 

Hand  Saws — Their  Use  and  Abuse,  Hodgson.     Book  Sup.  Co.,  Chicago. 


226 


SHOP  TOOL  CASE 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGN 


SAW  RACK 


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BRACE  RACK  OF  VOWELS 


CHISEL  RACK 


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BIT  RACK 


227 

SHOP  TOOL  CASE  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SIDES. 

A  study  of  the  drawing  will  show  you  that  the  shop  tool  case 
is  made  very  much  like  a  box ;  it  is  then  cased  in  front  and  doors 
are  hung  to  the  casing. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4  and  5)  and 
prepare  the  side  pieces  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  If 
you  are  making  this  case  to  fit  some  particular  place,  you  should 
follow  the  sizes  of  your  own  drawing.  Be  sure  that  the  two  sides 
are  exactly  the  same  size  in  every  way.  Square  the  stock  (Chap- 
ter II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4  and  5). 

TOP  AND  BOTTOM. 

Prepare  the  top  and  bottom  the  dimensions    given    in    the. 
drawing.     These  two  pieces  must  be  made  exactly  the  same  size. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Nail  this  framework  together  with  plain  butt  joints  (Chap- 
ter V.,  Paragraph  60)  and  test  with  a  large  steel  square  to  make 
sure  it  is  perfectly  square.  You  might  nail  a  brace  temporarily 
across  the  front  edge  to  hold  it  perfectly  square  while  you  turn 
it  over  on  the  tressels,  and  put  on  the  back  of  beaded  ceiling.  The 
case  must  be  kept  perfectly  square  while  the  back  is  being  put  on, 
for  if  it  is  crooked  it  will  remain  in  that  shape  when  completed. 
The  middle  partition  should  be  cut  exactly  the  same  length  as  the 
outside  pieces,  less  the  thickness  of  the  top  and  bottom,  and  nailed 
in  position  through  the  bottom  and  the  top. 

THE  SHELVES. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4  and  5)  ; 
prepare  the  shelves  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  (If 
you  prefer  these  shelves  may  be  put  in  with  a  gained  joint  (Chap- 
ter V.,  Paragraph  61)  or  they  may  be  made  adjustable  by  insert- 
ing screw  eyes  or  screws  into  the  side  pieces  to  support  them). 
You  will  note  in  the  drawing  that  only  one  side  is  equipped  with 
shelves.  The  other  side  may  be  similarly  equipped,  if  desired. 

THE  CASING. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  3,  4  and  5) ;  pre- 
pare the  casing  the  proper  dimensions.  Nail  this  casing  in  posi- 
tion, making  it  exactly  even  with  the  outside  of  the  case  all  around. 


228 

THE  DOORS. 

The  doors  are  to  be  made  of  beaded  ceiling  nailed  on  cross 
strips  called  battens.  Prepare  these  battens  the  proper  size.  Also 
prepare  the  brace  strips  which  are  to  extend  diagonally  between 
the  battens.  Plane  off  the  groove  from  the  edge  of  the  first  piece 
of  beaded  ceiling  (this  will  give  it  a  firm  edge  to  receive  the 
hinges).  Make  sure  that  the  battens  stand  perfectly  square  when 
the  first  strip  is  nailed  into  position;  keep  the  work  square  as  the 
ceiling  strips  are  added.  The  doors,  when  completed,  may  be  re- 
sawed  at  bottom  and  top  to  fit  the  opening  perfectly.  Fasten  them 
in  position  with  T-hinges,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  doors 
should  be  provided  with  spring  catches,  or  a  lock,  if  desirable. 
Add  the  rabbet  or  bumper  strip,  against  which  the  doors  close  at 
the  top. 

FINISHING. 

When  the  work  is  completed  go  over  it  with  a  sharp  plane  and 
smooth  any  joints  that  may  not  be  perfect.  Set  the  nails  a  little 
below  the  surface  of  the  wood  and  fill  the  holes  with  putty.  Fin- 
ish with  paint  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  52)  or  stain  (Chapter 
IV.,  Paragraph  54) .  NOTE :  In  the  suggestions  will  be  found  a 
number  of  ideas  for  tool  racks  for  shop  tool  cases.  By  following 
these  suggestions  you  should  be  able  to  work  out  a  great  many 
other  convenient  racks  and  hangers  which  you  may  fasten  in  your 
tool  case  or  on  the  doors  in  such  shape  as  you  find  desirable  and 
convenient  for  your  particular  set  of  tools. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

SEWING  CABINET. 

1.  A  sewing  cabinet  particularly  adapted  for  school  use  may 
be  made  on  a  plan  very  similar  to  the  shop  tool  case.     Each  student 
should  be  provided  with  a  tray  or  box  in  which  to  keep  all  sewing 
materials.    A  cabinet  of  this  kind  fitted  with  shelves  to  accommo- 
date the  size  and  number  of  the  trays  will  be  a  valuable  piece  of 
equipment. 

DRAWING  BOARD  CABINET. 

2.  A  very  serviceable  cabinet,  for  the  protection  of  drawing 
boards  in  the  mechanical  drawing  department,  can  be  easily  con- 
structed on  the  principles  given  in  this  lesson.    The  cabinet  should 
be  made  deep  enough  to  receive  the  full  width  of  the  boards  when 
standing  on  end. 


229 


WORK  BENCH 


4  pcs.  hard  wood  Ii/2"x3i/2"x24"  Legs. 

2  pcs.  hard  wood  Ii/2"x6"x31"  Stretchers. 

1  pc.    hard  wood  I1/^"x3i/4"x32"  Vise  jaw. 

1  pc.     hard  wood  l!/2"x6"x29"  Vise  jaw. 


MATERIALS. 
Maple  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  41). 

1  pc.  hard  wood  I%"xl2"x 

50"     Top. 
1  pc.  hard  wood  %" 

50"     Tool  trough. 
1  pc.  hard  wood  %" 

50"     Back  brace. 
1  pc.  hard  wood  %"xli/4"x 

50"     Tool  rack. 
4  pcs.  hard  wood  li/2"x3i/2" 

x21"     Top      and      base 

pieces. 


1  pc.    soft    wood     y8"x3i/2"xl2i/2" 

16-%"x6"  square  head  bolts  with  washers  and  nuts. 

9-2i/2"  No.  16  F.  H.  B.  screws. 

12-li/2"  NO.  1.0  F.  H.  B.  screws. 

1  steel  vise  screw  %"  with  nut,  complete. 

6-8d  finishing  nails. 

4-1"  No.  12  F.  H.  B.  Screws. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  every  home  there  are  so  many  odd  jobs  to  be  done  that  it 
is  worth  while  to  have  some  sort  of  work  bench.  The  material  re- 
quired for  the  construction  of  an  excellent  bench  is  not  expensive, 
and  if  properly  used  it  would  soon  save  you  enough  to  pay  for  it. 

A  work  bench  should  be  absolutely  solid  and  rigid  so  it  will  not 
shake  when  you  are  attempting  to  do  careful  work. 

The  bench  shown  in  this  lesson  is  so  constructed  as  to  be  strong 
and  solid;  the  bolted  joints  can  be  tightened  from  time  to  time  if 
necessary ;  the  wide  stretchers  between  the  pairs  of  legs  'are  held 
by  two  bolts  at  each  end  and  are  thus  made  absolutely  rigid. 


References : 


Handy  Man's  Work  Shop  and  Laboratory,  A.  Russel  Bond. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Bulletins  Nos.  97,  117,  130,  138,  145. 
Handbook  in  Woodwork  and  Carpentry,  King.     American  Book  Co. 
Manual  of  Carpentry  and  Joinery,  Riley. 


230 


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WORKBENCH 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGN 


fly 


FARM  WORKBENCH 


231 

WORK  BENCH  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  TOP. 

The  heavy  portion  of  the  top  of  the  work  bench  may  be  one 
wide  board  or  it  may  be  made  of  several  pieces  glued  together,  de- 
pending upon  the  manner  in  which  your  stock  is  furnished.  Pre- 
pare the  top  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  Notice  that 
it  is  to  be  rabbeted  to  receive  the  board  which  forms  the  tool 
trough.  If  you  do  not  have  a  rabbeting  plane,  this  may  be  done 
with  the  grooving  side  of  a  matching  plane,  and  finished  with  a 
sharp  chisel.  Prepare  the  board  for  the  tool  trough,  as  shown  in 
the  drawing. 

THE  LEGS. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4  and  5)  for 
the  legs.  Cut  the  four  legs,  making  sure  they  are  all  the  same 
length.  Any  variations  will  make  your  bench  unlevel. 

THE  BASE  PIECES. 

Prepare  the  two  base  pieces  as  shown  in  the  drawing;  make 
sure  that  they  are  perfectly  square  so  the  legs  will  rest  upon  them 
with  a  good  joint.  In  like  manner  prepare  the  two  top  cross 
braces. 

STRETCHERS. 

Square  the  stock  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  2,  3,  4  and  5) ;  cut 
the  two. stretchers  (the  braces  between  the  two  pairs  of  legs)  as 
shown  in  the  drawing. 

ASSEMBLING. 

As  this  bench  is  to  be  assembled  with  draw  bolts,  you  will 
have  considerable  boring  to  do.  This  is  a  very  particular  process, 
therefore  you  must  do  it  carefully.  Notice  that  the  legs  are  fas- 
tened into  the  bottom  and  top  pieces  with  bolts,  and  that  the  bolt 
heads  are  sunk  into  the  top  brace  about  an  inch.  You  should 
therefore  bore  into  the  places  with  a  bit  large  enough  to  allow  the 
bolt  head  to  enter.  Then  finish  the  boring'  with  a  bit  the  right  size 
for  the  body  of  the  bolts.  It  will  require  a  socket  wrench  to 
tighten  the  bolts  when  their  heads  are  below  the  surface.  If  you 
cannot  secure  a  socket  wrench,  you  may  be  able  to  tighten  them 
by  using  a  nail  set,  and  driving  the  nuts  which  are  in  the  holes. 
In  boring  for  all  these  bolts  be  sure  that  you  hold  the  bit  perpen- 
dicularly (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  11).  In  the  stretchers  the  holes 


232 

for  the  nuts  do  not  go  entirely  through.  This  gives  the  bench  a 
little  neater  appearance  than  if  those  holes  showed  on  the  front 
side  of  the  stretcher.  Assemble  the  frame  of  the  bench  and  tight- 
en all  the  nuts  securely.  NOTE :  The  top  is  held  in  position  with 
large  screws  put  through  from  the  bottom  side  of  the  cross  brace 
of  the  legs.  These  screws  are  sunk  in  the  wood  in  order  to  make 
them  reach. 

THE  VISE. 

This  bench  may  be  equipped  with  an  iron  vise  if  you  care  to 
purchase  one.  You  can  readily  make  the  wooden  vise  shown  in 
the  drawing,  and  you  will  find  it  a  very  satisfactory  one.  It  is 
held  in  position  by  large  screws  fastened  into  the  bench  top,  and 
into  the  leg  braces. 

TOOL  RACK. 

The  tool  rack  on  the  rear  of  the  bench  may  be  prepared  for 
whatever  tools  you  desire  it  to  hold. 

FINISHING. 

When  the  bench  is  completed,  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper  re- 
move all  lead  pencil  marks  and  rough  places;  give  it  a  good  coat 
of  linseed  oil  or  shellac  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph  57). 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

FARM  WORK  BENCH. 

1.  For  general  purpose  work  about  the  farm  a  long  bench  is 
often  required.  The  idea  shown  in  the  suggestions  will  be  very 
suitable,  yet  inexpensive,  for  the  construction  of  such  a  bench.  A 
very  valuable  feature  may  be  added  by  purchasing  a  small  ma- 
chinist's vise,  and  attaching  it  to  the  rear  end  of  this  bench.  Such 
a  vise  will  be  found  very  useful  in  a  great  many  odd  jobs  about 
the  farm. 


233 


STANCHION 

MATERIALS. 

Beech  (Chap.  III.,  Par.    32)    or   any 
hard  wood. 

2  pcs.  li/8"x2l/2"xlOi/2"  S  2  S  Ends. 
2  pcs.  Ii/8"x2i/2"x49"  S  2  S  Sides. 
2  pcs.  chain  12". 

1  pc.  small  anchor  chain  14". 

2  angle  irons  with  screws. 
2  eye  bolts  5/16"xl%". 

1  pc.  5/16"  soft  iron  rod  16"  long. 
1  strap  hinge,  21/2"  pin  measure,  with 

screws. 
2-3/4"  staples. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  studying  the  various  problems  of  dairying  it  has  been 
found  a  great  benefit  not  only  to  improve  the  sanitary  conditions, 
but  also  to  provide  for  humane  treatment  of  the  stock.  The  stan- 
chion has  been  worked  out  as  a  solution  to  the  problem  of  tying 
the  cows  securely  and  at  the  same  time  giving  them  all  possible 
freedom. 

The  stanchion  given  in  this  lesson  has  been  so  designed  as 
to  present  both  strength  and  convenience;  it  is  to  be  held  in  po- 
sition by  chains  fastened  at  the  top  and  bottom.  This  will  make 
it  possible  for  the  cow  to  raise  and  lower  her  head  or  to  turn 
from  side  to  side  and  still  not  be  able  to  pull  back  from  her  posi- 
tion. 


References : 


U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  106,  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  143,  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  55,  The  Dairy  Herd,  Its  Function  and  Man- 
agement. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.    42,  Facts  About  Milk. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.    74,  Milk  as  Food. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.    29,  Souring  and  Other  Changes  in  Milk. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  413,  Care  of  Milk  and  Its  Uses  in  the  Home. 

U.  S.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  457,  Production  of  Sanitary  Milk. 

Building  the  Dairy  Barn,  James.  James  Manufacturing  Co.,  Ft.  Atkin- 
son, Wis. 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings,  Shawver.     David  William?  Co.,  New  York. 

Twentieth  Century  Practical  Barn  Plans,  Radford.  David  Williams  Co., 
New  York. 


234 


A— 


COW 
STANCHION 


HINGED 
DOTTOM  EW  VIEW 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESW 
^^OPEN  n    ^ CLOSED 


i  fi  rirrrffM 


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STANCHION  AND  SECTION  OF  STALL 


235 

COW  STANCHION  SPECIFICATIONS 

SIDE  RAILS. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  side  rails  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs 
2,  3  and  4)  ;  your  stock  will  probably  be  furnished  in  two  pieces, 
each  long  enough  to  make  one  side  rail  and  an  end  rail.  By  squar- 
ing each  piece  its  full  length  you  will  thus  prepare  the  sides  and 
ends  at  one  operation. 

Cut  the  side  rails  the  lengths  shown  in  the  drawing.  NOTE : 
Notice  that  the  end  rails  are  to  join  one  side  rail  with  mortise  and 
tenon  joints ;  the  other  side  rail  is  movable,  being  attached  to  the 
bottom  rail  with  a  hinge.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  mortises  in  the 
first  side  rail  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  66).  Cut  the  second  side 
rail,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  END  RAILS. 

As  the  stock  has  already  been  squared,  cut  the  pieces  the  re- 
quired length;  lay  out  and  cut  a  tenon  at  one  end  of  each  (Chap- 
ter II. ,  Paragraph  14).  Cut  the  other  end  of  each,  as  shown  in 
the  drawing. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  the  mortise  and  tenon  joints  (they  may  be  draw 
bored  and  pinned  if  desired  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  66).  These 
corners  are  to  be  reinforced  with  angle  irons.  These  angle  irons 
are  to  be  bedded  into  the  wood  until  they  are  level  with  the  sur- 
face. Lay  them  out  carefully  (be  sure  to  calculate  the  length  of 
each  gain  properly)  ;  with  a  sharp  chisel  cut  the  gains  into  which 
the  irons  are  to  fit;  fasten  the  irons  with  screws. 

Fasten  the  second  side  rail  into  position  with  a  strong  hinge. 

THE  EYE  BOLT. 

Each  eye  bolt  should  have  a  washer  on  the  outside;  none  will 
be  required  on  the  inside,  for  the  bolt  goes  through  the  angle  iron, 
thus  helping  to  hold  it  rigid.  Each  eye  bolt  should  be  supplied 
with  a  few  inches  of  chain  by  which  the  stanchion  is  to  be  hung 
when  in  use. 

THE  FASTENING. 

The  fastening  consists  of  a  movable  loop  of  iron  rod  which 
can  be  raised  and  lowered  as  needed  to  hold  the  hinged  side  rail. 


236 
THE  ANCHOR  CHAIN. 

The  small  anchor  chain  should  be  fastened  with  staples;  its 
purpose  is  to  keep  the  hinged  side  rail  from  falling  when  the 
stanchion  is  open. 

FINISHING. 

This  piece  of  work  does  not  require  a  fine  finish.  However, 
if  given  a  good  coat  of  linseed  oil  it  will  be  protected  against  mois- 
ture. The  oil  will  also  cause  the  wood  to  wear  smooth. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

STATIONARY  STANCHION. 

1.  A  stationary  cow  stanchion  may  be  easily  provided,  as 
shown  in  the  suggestions;  the  movable  side  of  the  stanchion  con- 
sists merely  of  a  slat  pivoted  on  a  bolt.    The  stanchion  is  held  closed 
by  a  pivoted  block  at  the  top,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.     The  sta- 
tionary stanchion  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  movable  stanchion 
presented  in  this  lesson. 

CHICKEN  YARD  GATE. 

2.  The  principles  involved  in  the  construction  of  the  cow  stan- 
chion may  be  employed  in  making  any  kind  of  strong  rectangular 
frame,  such  as  would  be  needed  in  building  a  gate  for  a  chicken 
park  or  garden.     This  frame  should  be  assembled  with  mortise 
and  tenon  construction,  and  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  joints  re- 
inforced with  angle  irons  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  cow 
stanchion.     In  constructing  the  gate  it  will  be  desirable  to  use  a 
diagonal  brace.     The  entire  framework    could    be    covered    with 
pickets  or  poultry  net,  as  might  be  desired. 


237 


CHICKEN  BROODER 


MATERIALS. 
Cypress  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  46)  or  any  soft  wood. 


8  pcs.  7/8 "x  61/2 "x20"     S  2  S 
7  pcs.  7/8"x  4i/2"x25"     S  2  S 

3  pcs.  %  "x  61/2  "x25"     S2S 
2  pcs.  %"x  2"xl8"         S  2  S 
2  pcs.  7/8"x  6"x25"         S2S 
2  pcs.  7/8"x  7"xl2"         S  2  S 

1  pc.     7/8"xlO"x30"         S2S 

4  pcs.  3/8"x  134"X20"     S  2  S 

2  pcs.  7/8"x  2"xl2"         S2S 

2  pcs.  7/8"x2"xl8"  S  2  S 
7  pcs.  7/8"x  2"x  4'         S  2  S 
6  pcs.  7/8"x  2"x25"         S2S 
1  gross  small  staples. 

1  pc.  fly  screen  12"xl8". 

3  pair  screen  door  hinges. 
1  pair  tight  pin  butts. 

3  screen  door  knobs. 


Sides  and  roof. 

Back,  back  door  and  roof. 

Bottom. 

Bottom  battens. 

Front. 

Front. 

Roof. 

Roof  strips. 

Roof  door  battens. 

Front  door  step. 

Runway. 

Runway  and  door. 

10  ft.  12"  poultry  net. 

1  yard  24"  poultry  net. 

6  doz.  6d  fin.  nails. 

6  doz.  8d  fin.  nails. 

1  doz.  1/2"  corrugated  nails. 


References : 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.    41,  Fowls,  Care  and  Feeding. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.    51,  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

U.  S,  Bulletin  No.  141,  Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  287,  Poultry  Management. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  182,  Poultry  as  Food. 

U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  236,  Incubators. 

The  Practical  Poultry  Keeper,  Lewis  Wright.     Cassel  &  Co.,  Publishers. 

Minnesota  Bulletin  No.  8,  Poultry  Houses. 

Poultry  Houses,  Foster.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Poultry  Architecture,  Fiske.     Orange-Judd  Co.,  New  York. 


238 


CHICKEN  BROODER 


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h--       -24 


239 

THE  CHICKEN  BROODER  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BOTTOM. 

This  little  house  is  to  be  built  very  much  like  a  plain  box. 
Notice  that  the  bottom  is  provided  with  battens.  This  is  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  it  up  off  the  ground  slightly,  and  also  to  pro- 
tect the  bottom  from  warping.  The  bottom  may  be  made  of  any 
number  of  boards;  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  join  their  edges. 
Nail  the  bottom  boards  on  the  battens,  then  cut  the  bottom  the 
size  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  ENDS. 

The  ends  must  be  made  of  several  boards.  They  may  be  cut 
the  proper  length  and  toe-nailed  together  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph 
22),  or  they  may  be  fastened  with  corrugated  nails  (Chapter  II., 
Paragraph  23).  Make  these  two  ends,  then  lay  out  and  cut  the 
gables  third-pitch  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  25).  Be  sure  the  two 
ends  are  exactly  the  same  size  in  every  way.  With  the  compasses 
lay  out  the  ventilator  holes.  Bore  a  hole  to  start  and  saw  them 
out  with  the  compass  saw. 

FRONT  AND  BACK. 

Prepare  the  front  and  back  sides.  They  may  be  made  of  sev- 
eral boards  nailed  together. 

THE  ROOF. 

If  possible  the  front  portion  of  the  roof  should  be  one  wide 
board ;  the  rear  portion,  which  receives  the  door,  may  be  made  up 
of  several  pieces,  provided  small  strips  are  tacked  over  the  cracks 
in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  door  cracks  are  protected.  The 
door  is  fastened  in  position  by  hinges  at  the  top,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing. 

THE  REAR  DOOR. 

The  rear  door  is  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  out  the  house. 
It  is  not  expected  to  be  used  to  put  in  chickens ;  this  is  to  be  done 
at  the  top  door.  Notice  that  this  small  door  also  has  battens  to 
keep  it  from  warping. 

THE  FRONT  DOOR. 

The  front  door  is  a  mitered  frame  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph 
64)  assembled  with  corrugated  nails  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  23). 
It  is  covered  with  screen  wire  and  trimmed  with  small  binding 
strips.  The  ventilator  holes  should  also  be  covered  with  screen 
wire.  This  makes  the  house  rat  proof. 


240 

THE  RUNWAY. 

The  frame  of  the  runway  is  made  up  of  strips  fastened  with 
plain  butt  joints  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  60).  In  cutting  the  ma- 
terial for  this  runway  care  should  be  exercised  to  cut  opposite 
sides  the  same  length  so  it  will  be  square  when  completed.  The 
door  of  the  runway  is  a  mitered  frame  construction,  the  same  as 
the  front  door  to  the  house;  it  is  also  fastened  with  corrugated 
nails  (Chapter  II.,  Paragraph  23).  The  entire  runway  should  be 
covered  with  poultry  net,  1"  mesh.  The  door  to  the  runway  and 
both  doors  to  the  house  should  be  hung  with  screen  door  hinges. 
This  will  insure  their  holding  shut  without  any  fastenings  and 
will  also  allow  them  to  stand  open  when  desired. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  the  bottom  ends  and  sides  with  plain  butt  joints 
(Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  60).  Nail  all  the  joints  securely,  testing 
frequently  with  the  try-square  to  make  sure  that  all  angles  are 
right  angles. 

FINISHING. 

As  this  work  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  should  be 
finished  with  one  or  two  coats  of  paint  (Chapter  IV.,  Paragraph 
52).  In  this  lesson  no  suggestions  are  offered  for  original  de- 
signs ;  there  are,  however,  a  great  many  ideas  which  will  no  doubt 
occur  to  you  in  the  construction  of  this  piece  of  work.  The  size, 
shape  of  the  house  and  the  runway  may  be  made  to  suit  your 
needs. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

HALF-BARREL  CHICKEN  BROODER. 

1.  An  inexpensive  and  easily  constructed  chicken  brooder  may 
be  made  by  sawing  a  sugar  barrel  into   two    equal   parts.      The 
hoops  should  be  driven  on  very  tightly  and  nailed  securely  before 
the  sawing  is  begun.    This  will  make  sure  that  the  two  parts  will 
hold  their  cylindrical  shape.    The  door  is  provided  by  sawing  out 
a  notch,  or  by  sawing  off  one  stave  a  few  inches  shorter  than  the 
others. 

DOG  KENNEL. 

2.  By  changing  a  few  of  the  features  of  the  chicken  house, 
and  making  the  house  considerably  larger,  a  very  satisfactory  dog 
kennel  may  be  provided. 


241 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COMMUNITY  RESEARCH. 

No.  1.  Examine  the  under  side  of  a  couch  or  an  upholstered 
chair,  or,  if  convenient,  visit  a  place  where  upholstering  work  is 
done  and  find  out  how  the  springs  are  held  in  position.  Why  is 
leather,  or  some  of  the  imitations  of  leather,  more  sanitary  than 
the  old-fashioned  cloth  coverings  for  upholstering  work  in  the 
home? 

No.  2.  Examine  the  furniture  in  your  home  and  see  if  you 
can  tell  of  what  kind  of  wood  each  piece  is  made.  In  making  this 
examination  do  not  scratch  the  front  of  the  furniture,  but  examine 
hidden  edges  and  the  back  parts  where  you  can  see  the  natural 
wood  without  destroying  the  finish. 

No.  3.  Is  any  of  your  furniture  veneered?  Of  what  kind  of 
wood  is  the  veneering  made?  To  what  kind  of  wood  is  it  glued? 

No.  4.  What  kind  of  tool  case  or  other  method  of  caring  for 
the  tools  do  you  have  in  your  home?  Why  should  a  tool  case  be, 
kept  perfectly  dry?  See  if  you  can  find  out,  by  inquiry,  where 
the  rust  comes  from  that  gets  on  the  metal  parts  of  a  machine  or 
on  tools  which  are  exposed  to  the  weather.  What  will  be  the  final 
result  if  a  piece  of  metal  is  continually  left  exposed  to  rust? 

No.  5.  What  are  the  advantages  in  hitching  a  cow  in  a 
stanchion  rather  than  with  a  halter  or  rope? 

No.  6.  Make  inquiry  in  your  community  and  find  out  what 
influences  are  most  harmful  to  young  chicks.  How  can  these  in- 
fluences be  overcome?  Does  the  chicken  brooder  provided  in  this 
section  solve  any  of  those  problems?  , 

No.  7.  What  advantages  can  you  see  in  painting  a  chicken 
brooder,  window  flower  box  or  flower  trellis? 

No.  8.  Is  there  any  advantage  besides  appearance  in  keep- 
ing a  house  properly  painted?  Make  inquiry  from  your  father 
or  other  men  who  have  had  experience  and  find  out  whether  they 
think  it  is  really  economical  to  neglect  properly  painting  a  house. 

No.  9.  Of  what  kind  of  wood  are  shingles  made?  Why  is 
this  particular  kind  of  wood  selected  for  the  purpose?  Inquire 
from  some  of  the  older  men  of  the  community  and  find  out  what 
sort  of  wood  was  used  for  the  old-fashioned  hand-split  clapboards. 
Why  did  that  kind  of  roof  go  out  of  use  in  your  community? 

No.  10.  Find  out  how  many  trades  or  occupations  are  repre- 
sented by  patrons  of  your  school.  How  many  of  them  use  some 
sort  of  hand  tools  in  their  work?  Which  trades  are  most  promis- 
ing for  young  men  to  enter?  Why? 


242 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS. 

1.  What  likeness  in  construction  did  you  notice  in  the  shoe 
polishing  box  and  the  wash  bench? 

2.  What  were  the  principal  points  of  difference  between  these 
two  articles? 

3.  What  do  you  consider  the  most  difficult  process  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  tabouret  ? 

4.  How  do  you  determine  the  color  of  stain  and  kind  of  finish 
to  use  on  an  article  of  household  furniture? 

5.  What  sort  of  material  would  you  recommend  for  uphol- 
stering?   Why? 

6.  What  points  must  be  given  special  attention  in  upholster- 
ing work? 

7.  What  are  the  principal  difficulties  in  planning  and  making 
a  folding  table? 

8.  Why  should  the  steps  of  a  stepladder  be  gained  into  the 
side  pieces  ?     By  what  other  methods  may  they  be  fastened  ? 

9.  What  is  the  advantage  of  attaching  the  stepladder  legs 

with  hinges  rather  than  small  bolts  ? 

t 
10.     What  is  meant  by  ball-bearing  castors?     Explain  why 

they  are  the  most  satisfactory. 

•11.     What  points  must  be  given  careful  attention  in  making 
a  batten  door? 

12.  How  would  you  design  and  construct    a    tool    rack  for 
chisels  ? 

13.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  wide  stretchers  between  the 
legs  of  the  work  bench? 

14.  Why  are  draw  bolts  better  than  lag  bolts  in  constructing 
a  work  bench? 

15.  What  sort  of  wood  would  you  select  for  a  work  bench? 
Why?     Name  two  other  kinds  which  would  be  suitable. 

16.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  angle  irons  in  the  cow  stan- 
chion ? 

17.  Name  two  or  three  articles  in  which  angle  irons  might 
be  used  to  reinforce  the  joints. 


243 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS  (Concluded). 

18.  Would  white  pine  or  bass  wood  be  suitable  for  a  cow 
stanchion?     Why?     Name  four  kinds  of  timber  that  would  be 
suitable. 

19.  Name  and  explain  at  least  three  important  problems  that 
must  be  considered  in  designing  a  chicken  brooder. 

20.  Why  are  screen  door  hinges  particularly  suitable  for  a 
chicken  brooder  door? 

21.  Why  should  a  chicken  brooder  have  a  floor? 

22.  Estimate  the  number  of  board  feet  in  each  article  in  this 
section;  find  out  local  prices  per  hundred  and  figure  the  cost  of 
lumber  for  each. 

23.  Figure  the  cost  of  the  labor,  counting  your  time  at  121/2 
or  15  cents  per  hour,  on  each  article  which  you  have  made  in  this 
section. 

24.  Add  the  cost  of  labor  to  the  cost  of  material  (do  not  for- 
get to  include  the  cost  of  hardware  and  sundries)  and  estimate  the 
value  of  each  article  which  you  have  made. 

25.  Make  a  list  and  classify  all  the  tools  which  you  have  used 
thus  far?     Which  are  laying  out,  and  which  are  cutting  tools? 

26.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  timber  which  you 
have  used  thus  far.     Describe  each  and  tell  all  you  can  about  its 
nature  and  properties. 

27.  Which  tool  have  you  found  the  most  difficult  to  keep 
sharp  ? 

28.  What  kind  of  oil  should  be  used  on  an  oil  stone?    Is  lin- 
seed oil  suitable  for  this  purpose? 


244 


INTRODUCTION  TO  SECTION  VI 

THIS  section  is  intended  only  for  students  who  have  had  suffi- 
cient training  in  bench  work  to  enable  them  to  understand 
working  drawings,  to  originate  simple  designs  with  some 
taste  and  judgment  and  to  handle  the  principal  tools  with  such 
skill  as  to  avoid  wasting  material.  The  matter  of  preparing  the 
stock,  of  laying  out  and  executing  ordinary  processes  should  fur- 
nish no  difficulty. 

Throughout  this  section  no  references  will  be  made  to  the  de- 
tail of  simple  processes  in  the  supplement;  students  who  have  not 
mastered  those  elementary  principles  should  continue  their  work 
in  an  earlier  section  of  the  text. 

The  projects  set  forth  in  this  section  deal  with  cabinet  prin- 
ciples in  an  elementary  way,  employing  them  in  a  widely  varying 
list  of  ideas,  in  order  to  appeal  to  the  taste  of  all  students.  Some 
of  these  lessons  afford  an  opportunity  to  develop  a  high  degree 
of  skill  in  the  art  of  wood  finishing,  and  while  it  is  sometimes  a 
little  difficult  to  provide  satisfactory  conditions  to  do  fine  varnish- 
ing work,  yet  the  results  will  be  very  gratifying  if  such  arrange- 
ments can  be  made. 

In  as  much  as  the  articles  presented  in  this  section  will  be- 
come a  part  of  the  student's  home  equipment  and  should  last  an 
indefinite  number  of  years,  each  student  should  be  urgently  ad- 
vised to  use  only  the  very  best  of  carefully  dried  cabinet  lumber. 
While  the  quartered  oak  is  a  little  more  expensive  than  plain  oak, 
yet  its  advantages,  in  the  way  of  beauty  and  permanency  of  the 
work,  make  it  much  to  be  preferred. 


245 


PORCH  SWING 


MATERIALS. 
Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29). 

14  pcs.  3/8"xl7/8"x3'    6" 
Slats. 

7  pcs.  3/8"xiy8"x3'    8" 
Slats. 

8  pcs.  %"xl%"x       8" 
Arm  slats. 

6  pcs.  %"x3"x     24" 
Arm    and    curved    back 
pieces. 

2  pcs.  7/8"xli4"x     17" 
Upper  arm  pieces. 


2  pcs.  %"x2"x    17"  Lower  arm  pieces. 

4  pcs.  l-l/16"x2"x    11"  Arm  supports. 

2  pcs.  Ii/8"x2l/4"x4'  3"  Sills. 

4  pcs.  7/g"x2"x  22"  Bottom  supports. 


1  Set  chains. 
36-6d  fin.  nails. 

4-lVi>"  No.  10  screws,  oval  head. 
15  dozen  li/j,"  No.  16  oval-headed 
hobnails. 

2  dozen      "  No.  17  wire  brads. 


18-1/2  "  corrugated  nails. 
4  eye  bolts. 
2  ceiling  hooks. 
2  No.  5  screw  eyes. 
6-14 "x2i/&"  carriage  bolts. 
2-i4"x3i/£"  carriage  bolts. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  planning  a  porch  swing  one  of  the  most  important  features 
is  that  it  shall  be  comfortable;  it  should  also  be  attractive  and  so 
constructed  as  to  be  durable. 

The  design  given  in  this  lesson  has  been  used  by  one  of  the 
largest  swing  manufacturing  concerns  in  the  country  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  and  it  has  proven  to  be  correct  in  every  detail.  You 
will  observe  that  the  sills  are  especially  heavy  and  that  the  swing 
is  so  hung  as  to  throw  the  weight  upon  these  sills. 


References : 


Outdoor  Furniture,  Good  Housekeeping  Magazine,  June,  1914. 
Simple  Rustic  Work,  Louis  Suead.     Harper's  Bazaar,  May,  1912. 
Garden  Furniture,  The  Craftsman  Magazine,  June,  1913. 


246 


SUGGESTIONS  FDR  ORIGINAL  PISIGN 


ATTACHED  ToSwiNG  WITH  ANGLE  IRON 


FOOT  REST 


247 

PORCH  SWING  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SILLS. 

Plane  the  sills  perfectly  square  and  smooth  and  cut  them  the 
length  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  BOTTOM. 

Cut  the  four  bottom  supports  the  proper  length.  You  will 
notice,  from  the  dotted  lines  shown  in  the  end  view,  that  the  sup- 
ports are  to  be  curved  on  the  top  side.  Lay  out  this  curve  freehand 
and  cut  it  out  with  the  drawing  knife.  Do  not  curve  these  pieces 
too  deeply,  or  it  will  weaken  them.  Nail  these  bottom  supports 
upon  the  sills  in  their  proper  position.  These  pieces  are  to  be  cov- 
ered with  slats,  placed  side  by  side,  making  a  solid  bottom. 

THE  ARMS. 

Notice  that  the  bottom  and  top  arm  rails  are  to  be  plowed  to 
receive  the  slats.  This  can  be  done  with  the  grooving  side  of  your 
matching  plane.  If  the  plane  does  not  cut  the  opening  wide  enough, 
you  might  lay  it  out  with  the  marking  gauge,  and  cut  it  wider  with 
the  chisel.  Cut  the  arms  the  desired  length,  and  assemble  them 
with  corrugated  nails.  Space  the  slats  properly,  and  fasten  with 
nails  at  the  bottom  and  top  in  the  cross  rails. 

THE  BACK. 

Notice  that  the  back  pieces  are  curved.  This  is  to  give  them 
the  proper  shape  to  make  a  comfortable  seat.  Lay  out  these  curves 
free-hand,  and  cut  out  one  of  the  pieces.  Use  this  one  for  a  pat- 
tern ;  cut  the  others  exactly  like  it.  Assemble  by  nailing  the  slats 
in  position.  Observe  that  these  slats  are  not  put  closely  together, 
as  in  the  bottom,  but  they  are  spread  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

ASSEMBLING. 

The  arms  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  bottom  by  means  of  bolts. 
The  back  is  fastened  in  position  by  means  of  bolts  through  the 
arms.  The  arms  are  nailed  through  into  the  bottom  supports,  and 
are  also  bolted  to  the  back. 

Lay  out  the  brackets  free-hand  and  saw  them  out  with  a  com- 
pass saw.  These  brackets  are  to  be  fastened  in  position  under  the 
arms  with  screws.  Insert  the  eye  bolts  in  the  ends  of  the  sills. 


248 

The  swing  is  to  be  hung  with  the  chain  fastened  through  the  screw 
eyes.  The  small  anchor  chain  is  fastened  to  the  back  to  prevent 
tipping  over. 

FINISHING. 

When  the  swing  is  all  assembled,  go  over  and  examine  it  care- 
fully to  see  that  there  are  no  rough  places  or  nails  extending.  Make 
sure  that  it  is  perfectly  smooth  all  over  and  give  it  a  coating  of 
stain.  You  must  use  a  good  grade  of  stain,  as  it  is  exposed  to  the 
weather ;  it  must  have  a  good  quality  of  oil  stain  which  will  neither 
rub  off  nor  fade. 

In  the  Suggestions  there  are  some  ideas  for  a  swing  of  a  little 
easier  construction;  however,  you  will  note  that  this  swing  would 
not  be  so  comfortable  on  account  of  the  back  being  perfectly 
straight.  The  suggestion  for  a  foot  rest  is  a  very  excellent  one. 
This  foot  rest  can  be  attached  to  any  swing;  it  is  to  be  fastened  to 
the  front  sill  by  means  of  two  heavy  angle  irons. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

PORCH  CHAIR. 

1.  The  plan  of  construction  used  in  this  porch  swing  can  be 
very  readily  modified,  so  as  to  provide  an  excellent  porch  chair. 
The  back  and  seat  need  not  be  changed,  except  in  length.     Some 
plan  should  be  devised  to  provide  suitable  legs  securely  braced. 

PORCH  ROCKER. 

2.  The  porch  chair  may  be  easily  converted  into  a  porch 
rocker  with  the  addition  of  suitable  rockers. 

LAWN  SEAT. 

3.  A  lawn  seat  may  be  constructed  on  a  plan  almost  identical 
with  the  porch  swing.     Rustic  seats  are  especially  suitable  for 
lawns  and  parks.    The  general  idea  for  such  a  seat  may  be  gath- 
ered from  the  principles  and  proportions  presented  in  this  lesson. 


249 

JARDINIERE  STAND 

MATERIALS. 

Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29),  plain  or  quar- 
tered. 

2  pcs.  7/8"x4i4"x35"  S2S  Uprights. 
2  pcs.  %"x2%"xZ5"  S  2  S  Uprights. 
4  pcs.  7/8"x63/4"xl4"  S  2  S  Sub.  base 

and  top. 

4  pcs.  %"x3"x3"         S2S  Base  blocks. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x8%"x9i/2"     S2S  Base    and 

sub  top. 

2  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 
16-114"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 
1  pc.  I4"xl2"  dowel  rod. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

This  stand  is  intended  to  be  used  as  a  piece  of  room  or  porch 
furniture.  It  should  therefore  be  constructed  with  great  care,  for 
its  value  depends  very  largely  upon  the  neatness  and  beauty  of  its 
workmanship.  It  will  serve  as  a  suitable  receptacle  for  a  flower 
pot,  vase  or  small  piece  of  statuary. 

In  working  out  your  design,  you  will  find  the  straight  line 
effects  are  most  satisfactory;  attempts  at  elaborate  design  or 
scroll  effects  are  likely  to  have  a  cheap  appearance.  In  designing 
any  piece  of  cabinet  work  you  should  consider  the  style  of  fur- 
niture of  the  room  in  which  it  is  to  be  used. 


References : 


The  Wood  Finisher,  Maire. 

The  Up-to-Date  Hardwood  Finisher,  Hodgson.  Fredrick  Drake  Co., 
Chicago. 

Woodworking  for  Schools  on  Scientific  Lines,  Bailey  and  Pollitt.  Man- 
ual Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111. 


250 


JARDINIERE  STAND 


SUGGESTION  FOR  ORIGINAL  PES/GN 


251 

JARDINIERE  STAND  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  BASE  AND  SUB-BASE. 

As  this  sub-base  calls  for  a  very  wide  board,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  you  to  join  two  boards  with  dowels.  Cut  the  sub-base  the 
exact  size  shown  in  the  drawing,  and  make  sure  all  the  edges  are 
perfectly  straight  and  square. 

Where  the  end  grain  of  wood  is  exposed  in  cabinet  work,  it 
should  be  very  carefully  finished.  Do  this  with  the  block  plane  and 
finish  with  fine  sandpaper.  The  small  corner  blocks  under  the  sub- 
base  must  be  perfectly  straight  and  project  evenly  on  all  sides. 

Prepare  the  base;  it  may  also  be  necessary  to  glue  up  this 
piece.  Be  sure  it  is  perfectly  square  when  finished. 

i 

THE  UPRIGHT. 

The  upright  is  to  be  a  boxed  column,  made  up  of  four  boards 
glued  together.  The  edges  must  be  perfectly  straight  and  square, 
so  the  joints  may  be  perfect.  NOTE :  It  would  be  a  very  excellent 
plan  to  join  these  corners  with  miter  joints,  if  you  are  skillful  and 
patient  enough  to  do  it  well.  Fasten  the  column  together  with  glue 
(small  finishing  nails  may  be  added,  if  necessary). 

THE  TOP  AND  SUB-TOP. 

The  top  is  to  be  made  up  of  two  pieces  joined  with  dowels.  Be 
sure  this  piece  is  perfectly  square  when  completed. 

FINISHING. 

When  the  work  is  completely  assembled,  with  a  sharp  steel 
scraper  smooth  all  surfaces  perfectly.  With  a  fine-pointed  nail  set, 
set  the  nails  slightly  below  the  surface.  NOTE :  These  holes  may 
be  filled  with  putty  made  the  same  color  as  the  stain  you  expect 
to  use,  or  with  a  little  glue  and  wood  dust  made  by  the  sandpaper- 
ing. Sandpaper  carefully ;  as  this  is  a  straight  line  design,  it  would 
not  be  in  harmony  with  itself  if  any  of  the  corners  were  rounded  or 
marred  in  any  way.  Stain  it  the  desired  color.  It  should  be  given 
a  coat  of  filler,  and  finished  with  shellac,  or  varnish.  NOTE :  This 
will  be  an  excellent  piece  of  work  on  which  to  practice  the  rub  var- 
nish finish,  because  all  its  surfaces  are  broad  and  flat,  and  there  are 
no  complicated  parts  to  offer  unsual  difficulties. 


252 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

PEDESTAL. 

1.  The  general  idea  for  the  construction  of  a  pedestal,  as 
shown  in  the  Suggestion,  is  a  very  popular  one.     It  admits  of  a 
great  many  variations  in  design.    As  a  rule  the  graceful  straight 
line  effects  will  be  found  most  pleasing  in  elementary  work. 

HALL  TREE. 

2.  The  principle  of  constructing  a  base  to  support  a  tall, 
slender  upright  is  employed  in  making  a  hall  tree.    As  a  rule  the 
central  upright  is  a  solid  piece  of  material  from  l1/^"  to  2V£"  square. 
The  box  construction  of  upright,  as  shown  in  this  lesson,  may  be 
used  if  desired. 


253 


TOOL  CHEST 

MATERIALS. 

Redwood   (Chap.  III.,  Par. 

49)  or  any  soft  wood. 

4  pcs.  7/8"x  9i/2"x35"   S2S 

Top  and  bottom. 
2  pcs.  7/8"xlOi,i"x35"   S  2  S 

Sides. 
2  pcs.  7/8"xlOi/i"xl8"   S  2  S 

Ends. 
2  pcs.  % "x  4"x36" 

Bottom  trim. 


2  pcs.  7/8"x4"x21" 
4  pcs.  7/8"x2"x36" 
4  pcs.  7/8"x2"x21" 

2  pcs.  i/2"x3/4"xl7" 
1  pc. 

3  pcs 


Bottom  trim. 

Lid  and  top  trim. 

Lid  and  top  trim. 
Till  support. 

"x  53/4"x32"     Till  bottom. 
"x3%"x32"     Till  sides,  ends  and  partitions. 


1  mortise  lock. 

8  doz.  6d  finishing  nails. 

4  doz.  li"  brads. 


1  pair  hinges,  with  screws. 
8  chest  corners,  with  screws. 
1  pair  handles. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

A  good  strong  box  is  necessary  in  moving  tools  from  one  place 
to  another;  for  convenience  such  a  box  should  be  fitted  with 
handles.  For  this  purpose  there  is  nothing  better  than  the  old- 
fashioned  tool  chest.  It  will  also  furnish  an  excellent  place  to 
store  extra  tools  which  are  not  in  every  day  use. 

The  tool  box  given  in  this  lesson  is  built  on  the  plan  which 
for  many  years  has  been  recognized  as  the  standard  tool  chest 
design.  There  are  a  great  many  different  styles  of  handy  tool 
chests  prepared  particularly  for  different  kinds  of  tools;  you  will 
find  it  interesting  to  work  out  a  plan  which  will  be  fitted  to  your 
need. 


References : 


Saws  in  the  Filing  Room.  Atkins  Saw  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
How  to  Sharpen  Tools.  Pike  Manufacturing  Co.,  Pike,  N.  H. 
The  Story  of  Carborundum  as  a  Sharpening  Material.  Carborundum 

Co.,  Niagara  Falls. 
Carpentry,  Townsend.    American  School  of  Correspondence,  Chicago,  111, 


254 


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SUGGESTION  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGH 
HAHDY  TOOL  CABINET  METHOPS  OF  FASTENING  CORNERS 


"-  gzr; 


Ho.2 


255 

TOOL  CHEST  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  SIDES. 

Square  the  stock;  lay  out,  and  make  the  sides  the  dimensions 
shown  in  the  drawing1.  Be  sure  these  sides  are  exactly  the  same 
width  and  length.  They  must  also  be  perfectly  square  on  all  cor- 
ners, or  your  box  will  not  be  square  when  assembled. 

THE  ENDS. 

Square  the  stock;  lay  out,  and  make  the  ends  the  exact  size 
shown  in  the  drawing.  Be  sure  these  ends  are  exactly  square  and 
the  same  size. 

THE  BOTTOM. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  make  the  bottom  out  of  two  or  more 
pieces.  These  pieces  should  be  joined  with  a  tongue  and  groove 
joint  made  with  the  matching  plane,  or  they  may  be  joined  with 
dowels  if  you  prefer  this  method. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Join  with  a  plain  butt  joint.  (If  you  care  to  take  the  trouble, 
you  may  use  the  dovetail  method  shown  in  the  suggestions) .  Nail 
through  the  sides  into  the  ends,  making  the  outside  corners  exactly 
even.  Test  with  a  large  steel  square,  and  hold  the  framework  per- 
fectly square  while  you  nail  on  the  bottom.  The  bottom  is  to  be 
nailed  down  through  into  the  sides  and  edges.  Make  the  bottom 
even  on  all  edges.  If  it  is  not  exactly  even,  plane  it  so. 

THE  TOP. 

Prepare  the  wide  board  for  the  top  either  by  matching  or 
doweling,  as  you  did  the  bottom. 

THE  BINDING  STRIP. 

The  binding  strips  should  be  planed  perfectly  straight  and 
square,  the  width  shown  in  the  drawing.  They  are  to  be  joined 
with  mitered  joints.  Cut  them  in  the  miter  box,  or  lay  them  out 
the  half -pitch  cut  and  set  the  T-bevel.  The  length  of  each  piece 
must  be  measured  separately,  taking  the  measure  from  the  place 
where  it  is  to  be  fastened ;  in  this  way  you  can  be  accurate.  Fas- 
ten the  trim  to  the  lid,  make  it  exactly  even  on  the  top.  The  top 
trim  on  the  body  of  the  box  is  put  a  little  below  the  edge,  thus 


256 

forming  a  rabbet  to  receive  the  lid.  The  base  trim  should  be 
mitered  around  the  box  in  a  similar  manner.  The  trim  is  to  be 
nailed  through  the  box  from  the  outside.  (If  you  desire,  screws 
may  be  put  in  from  the  inside  of  the  box  into  the  trim.  In  this 
case  the  screws  should  be  countersunk  so  as  to  be  even  with  the 
surface) . 

THE  TILL. 

The  till  is  a  small  box  on  the  inside  of  the  chest.  Notice  that 
it  rests  on  strips  tacked  on  the  inside  of  each  end.  This  till  should 
be  provided  with  openings  for  hand  holds. 

HINGING  THE  LID. 

Fasten  the  lid  to  the  box  with  hinges.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
refit  it  slightly  in  order  that  it  may  work  easily  after  the  hinges 
are  in  position.  Test  it,  and  plane  wherever  necessary  to  make  it 
work  easily.  Cut  the  mortise  and  set  the  lock. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  block  plane,  or  sharp  steel  scraper,  remove  any 
pencil,  tool  marks,  or  rough  places  in  the  work.  Be  sure  that  all 
the  surfaces  are  perfectly  clean.  Smooth  with  fine  sandpaper; 
stain  the  desired  color;  finish  with  shellac  or  varnish.  When  the 
coating  is  dry,  fasten  the  brass  corners  in  position. 

In  the  Suggestions  for  Original  Design  you  will  find  a  drawing 
showing  a  handy  tool  cabinet  to  be  carried  from  place  to  place. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

BOY'S  TRUNK  CHEST. 

1.  The  plan  of  construction  given  in  this  lesson  may  be  em- 
ployed in  building  a  strong  box,  or  trunk  chest,  which  a  boy  may 
find  quite  serviceable  in  his  room. 

CAMP  CHEST. 

2.  On  camping  trips  there  is  a  demand  for  a  strong  box  which 
will  answer  the  purpose  of  a  shipping  crate,  and  will  also  serve  in 
camp  as  a  cupboard.    This  plan  of  construction  will  be  found  quite 
satisfactory.    It  would  probably  be  necessary  to  make  such  a  chest 
considerably  larger,  and  equip  it  with  a  number  of  divisions  which 
would  answer  as  shelves  while  it  was  serving  the  purpose  of  a  camp 
Cupboard. 


257 


PIANO  BENCH 

MATERIALS. 

Oak   (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29), 

plain  or  quartered. 

2  pcs.  ll/8"x8"x36l/2"     S  2  S 

Top. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x3i4"x35"       S  2  S 

Side  rails. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x3i4"xl4"      S2S 

End  rails. 
4  pcs.  I%"xl%"xl6"     S  4  S 

Legs. 

Base  pieces  and  angle  blocks. 
Stretcher. 
Trim. 
Trim. 


3  pcs.  2i/2"x3i/4"xl7"  S  4  S 
Ipc.  Ii/4"x4i/4"x32"  S2S 
2  pcs.  i/2"xi/2"x35"  S4S 
2  pcs.  l/2"xi/2"xl6"  S4S 
1  pc.  1/2"  dowel  12"  long. 

1  dozen  11/4"  brads. 

2  dozen  6d  finishing  nails. 

3  dozen  li/2"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  recent  years  the  piano  bench  has  almost  entirely  taken 
the  place  of  the  piano  stool;  the  bench  is  preferred  for  several 
reasons,  not  only  because  it  is  more  pleasing  from  the  artistic 
standpoint,  but  also  because  it  is  more  serviceable.  The  bench 
affords  room  for  two  people  and  is  thus  convenient  for  duet  work 
or  for  teacher  and  pupil. 

Benches  are  often  so  constructed  as  to  furnish  a  receptacle 
for  music;  the  one  given  in  this  lesson  is  not  so  designed,  but  if 
desirable  you  can  easily  make  it  in  this  way  by  adding  a  bottom  and 
hinging  the  top. 

The  kind  of  wood  and  style  of  finish  for  a  piano  bench  should 
correspond  as  far  as  possible  with  the  piano  case.  This  is  a  piece 
of  work  which  calls  for  great  care  and  skill  in  every  detail,  for  no 
one  would  want  to  use  a  piano  bench  which  showed  evidence  of 
poor  workmanship. 


References : 


The  Expert  Wood  Finisher,  Kelly.     The  National  Builder,  Chicago. 
Elements  of  Handicraft  and  Design.     Benson. 


9-Voc. 


258 


PIANO  BENCH 


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NO.I 


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259 

PIANO  BENCH  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  TOP. 

As  the  top  is  to  be  made  of  two  pieces  glued  together,  you 
should  prepare  it  first,  in  order  that  the  glue  may  have  ample  time 
to  dry.  These  edges  must  be  perfectly  fitted  and  joined  with 
dowels. 

THE  LEGS. 

Although  the  legs  are  furnished  S  4  S,  you  must  go  over  them 
with  a  keen  plane,  and  make  them  smooth  and  perfectly  square; 
they  must  then  be  finished  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper.  Cut  them 
the  desired  length,  being  careful  to  make  allowance  for  the  tenons; 
cut  a  tenon  1"  square  on  each  end. 

THE  RAILS. 

Square  the  stock,  and  carefully  plane  the  rails  to  the  di- 
mensions shown  in  the  drawing.  These  rails  are  to  be  joined  at  the 
corners  with  mitered  joints.  They  should  be  cut  in  the  miter  box. 
Be  sure  the  opposite  side  and  opposite  ends  are  exactly  the  same 
length.  All  joints  must  fit  perfectly.  On  a  piece  of  work  of  this 
sort  ill-fitting  joints  would  render  it  absolutely  worthless. 

CORNER  BRACE  BLOCKS. 

These  blocks  are  to  be  fastened  on  the  inside  of  the  railing 
with  glue  and  wood  screws.  This  operation  must  be  carefully  done 
to  avoid  spreading  and  damaging  the  joints  at  the  corner.  If  this 
is  carefully  done,  the  framework  will  present  a  very  solid  corner 
into  which  the  mortises  are  to  be  cut  to  receive  the  tenons  of 
the  legs.  Lay  out  and  cut  these  mortises. 

THE  BASE  PIECES. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  base  pieces.  Lay  them  out  the  de- 
sired shape,  saw  them  out  with  the  compass  saw,  and  carefully 
finish  with  a  wood  file.  This  portion  of  the  work  must  be  accurately 
done,  and  edges  must  be  left  perfectly  square  and  smooth.  Lay 
out  and  cut  the  mortises  for  the  legs;  be  sure  to  make  them  the 
same  distance  apart  as  the  mortises  in  the  top  rail.  Lay  out  and 
cut  the  mortise  for  the  stretcher. 

THE  STRETCHER. 

Square  the  stock,  lay  out  and  make  the  stretcher  according  to 
the  drawing.  (Be  careful  to  cut  it  long  enough  to  allow  for  the 


260 

tenon  at  each  end).    Lay  out  and  make  the  tenon  on  each  end  to 
suit  the  corresponding  mortises  in  the  leg  bases. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Glue  all  of  the  tenons  in  their  proper  mortises ;  make  sure  that 
all  angles  are  perfectly  square;  test  frequently  with  the  square. 
Clamp  securely  in  such  a  way  as  to  bind  all  joints.  Remove  all  sur- 
plus glue. 

Putting  on  the  top  might  be  left  until  the  glue  is  thoroughly 
hardened  and  the  clamps  removed.  Resurface  the  top  and  cut  the 
shape  and  dimensions  shown  in  the  drawing.  Make  sure  that  all 
the  edges  are  perfectly  square.  The  top  is  to  be  fastened  to  the 
rails  by  screws  from  the  under  side,  as  shown  in  the  drawing ;  make 
sure  that  it  projects  evenly  on  all  sides ;  use  enough  screws  to  bind 
it  firmly  to  the  rail. 

THE  TRIM. 

The  small  trim  strips  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  lower  edge  of 
the  rail.  They  are  to  be  made  even  with  the  rail;  however,  if  let 
down  a  very  small  fraction  of  an  inch  they  will  hide  the  leg  joints. 
Miter  these  strips  at  the  corners;  fasten  them  in  position  with 
brads  and  glue. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  sharp  steel  scraper  refinish  the  entire  surface  of  the 
piano  bench.  Remove  all  pencil  and  tool  marks.  Smooth  with  fine 
sandpaper.  Give  special  attention  to  smoothing  all  places  where 
end  grain  is  exposed. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

OTTOMAN. 

1.  Suggestion  No.  1  presents  an  idea  of  bench  construction 
which  is  particularly  suitable  for  an  ottoman.     It  may  be  uphol- 
stered with  leather,  tapestry,  or  some  other  suitable  material. 

CRAFTSMAN  PIANO  BENCH. 

2.  Suggestion  No.  2  presents  a  general  idea  for  a  craftsman 
piano  bench.    A  number  of  modifications  are  possible  in  a  design  of 
this  sort.     Care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  rude  and  clumsy  ap- 
pearance in  any  of  the  craftsman  or  mission  designs. 


261 

MAGAZINE  RACK 

MATERIALS. 

Oak    (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29),  plain  or 
quartered. 

4  pcs.  I%,"xl%"x40"  S  4  S  Corner 

posts. 

2  pcs.     7/8"x8l4"x30"  S2S  Top. 
2  pcs.     %"x41/^"x25"  Rear  cross 

rails. 

4  pcs.     %"x4i/2"xl2"  Side  cross 
rails. 

5  pcs.     1/2"X41/4"X33"  Panel  strips. 

6  pcs.     %"x6     "x25"  Shelves. 
1  pc.  1,4"  dowel  24"  long. 

7  li/2"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

This  magazine  rack  is  constructed  on  principles  which  would 
be  suitable  not  only  for  a  magazine  or  newspaper  rack,  but  for 
a  music  cabinet  or  bookcase.  It  is  very  strong  and  substantial, 
being  assembled  with  mortise  and  tenon  joints  throughout;  of 
course  this  form  of  construction  will  call  for  very  careful  and 
accurate  work. 

If  a  closed  cabinet  is  desired  instead  of  the  open  rack,  this 
plan  can  easily  be  modified  by  making  the  panels  wide  enough  to 
fill  the  space  between  the  corner  posts.  A  panel  door  could  be 
made  to  correspond  with  the  remainder  of  the  work  and  thus  a 
completely  closed-in  cabinet  would  be  provided. 

In  the  suggestions  for  original  design  a  very  simple  idea  is 
presented.  A  rack  made  on  this  plan  would  be  much  less  work, 
but  it  would  be  neither  so  artistic  nor  so  substantial  as  the  one 
presented  in  the  regular  lesson. 


References: 


Library  Furniture,  in  Adventures  in  Home  Making,  Shackleton.     John 

Lane  Pub.  Co.,  New  York. 
Furniture  for  the  Craftsman,  Paul  D.  Otter.     David  Williams  Co.,  New 

York. 


262 


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263 

MAGAZINE  RACK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  CORNER  POSTS. 

Although  these  posts  are  furnished  S  4  S,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  you  to  resurface  them  with  a  keen  plane,  making  sure  that  they 
are  perfectly  square.  Finish  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper.  Cut  them 
the  required  length ;  lay  out  and  cut  all  mortises  for  the  rails. 

THE  TOP. 

The  top  is  to  be  made  by  gluing  together  two  or  more  boards. 
These  edges  must  be  perfectly  planed  and  joined  with  dowels. 
Clamp  the  boards  securely ;  leave  at  least  twelve  hours  for  the  glue 
to  harden. 

THE  CROSS  RAILS. 

Square  the  stock  for  the  cross  rails;  lay  out  and  make  them 
the  exact  shape  shown  in  the  drawing.  These  rails  are  to  be  joined 
to  the  corner  posts  with  mortise  and  tenon  joints;  in  cutting  the 
length  be  sure  to  allow  for  the  tenons;  lay  out  and  cut  all  of  the 
tenons  to  correspond  with  the  mortises  in  the  corner  posts.  Lay 
out  and  cut  the  mortises  for  the  panel  strips. 

THE  PANEL  STRIPS. 

The  panel  strips  are  to  be  fastened  into  the  bottom  and  top 
cross  rails  with  mortise  and  tenon  joints,  so  they  will  have  to  be 
prepared  before  the  other  work  is  assembled.  Resurface  these 
pieces  and  finish  with  a  steel  scraper.  Make  sure  that  the  edges 
are  perfectly  square,  and  that  they  are  all  exactly  the  same  size. 
You  will  have  to  exercise  great  care  in  cutting  the  length  of  the 
panel  pieces  so  they  will  make  good  joints  when  the  work  is  assem- 
bled. They  must  be  long  enough  to  fit  snugly  between  the  cross 
rails  when  they  are  assembled.  Test  them. 

THE  BOTTOM  AND  SHELVES. 

The  bottom  and  shelves  are  to  be  formed  by  gluing  up  two  or 
more  boards  with  dowels,  in  the  same  manner  in  which  you  glued 
up  the  top.  When  the  glue  is  thoroughly  hardened  remove  the 
clamps,  and  surface  these  boards  on  both  sides.  Finish  with  a  steel 
scraper  and  fine  sandpaper. 

ASSEMBLING. 

In  assembling  this  work,  assemble  one  side  at  a  time.  (Glue 
all  mortises  in  tenon  joints) ;  test  all  angles  frequently  with  the 


264 

square.  Place  the  bottom  and  top  rails  properly  on  one  of  the  side 
panel  pieces;  then  assemble  with  the  two  corner  posts.  In  like 
manner  assemble  the  other  side.  Glue  the  three  panel  pieces  into 
the  rear  bottom  and  top  rail,  then  glue  these  rails  into  their  proper 
mortises.  NOTE:  If  you  are  using  the  dowel  method  of  fasten- 
ing the  shelves,  they  will  have  to  be  put  in  at  this  time.  If  not, 
they  can  be  put  in  after  the  back  is  assembled.  Clamp  securely. 
If  you  do  not  have  a  sufficient  number  of  clamps  to  clamp  the  en- 
tire work  at  one  time,  it  would  be  well  to  clamp  up  one  end  section 
and  allow  the  glue  to  harden,  then  clamp  up  another  section,  allow- 
ing it  to  harden  before  undertaking  the  back.  The  top  may  be 
fastened  in  position  by  screws  put  in  on  an  angle  on  the  inside  of 
the  side  rail  (as  shown  in  the  preceding  lesson) ,  or  by  short  dowels 
in  each  post,  extending  almost  through  the  top  piece. 

The  shelves  and  bottom  are  to  be  fastened  in  place  with  small 
nails  driven  through  the  panel  pieces ;  if  desired,  short  dowels  may 
be  used  in  the  corner  posts. 

FINISHING. 

When  all  the  work  is  properly  assembled  go  over  it  with  a 
sharp  steel  scraper,  making  all  surfaces  perfectly  smooth.  Finish 
with  very  fine  sandpaper.  Stain  the  desired  color  (it  should  have 
a  coat  of  filler ;  shellac  may  be  substituted) .  Finish  with  shellac  or 
varnish. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

MUSIC  CABINET. 

1.  With  very  slight  modifications  this  magazine  rack  may  be 
converted  into  a  very  excellent  music  cabinet.    Instead  of  strips,  it 
should  be  provided  with  tight  panels.    A  door  should  be  constructed 
of  similar  panel  design. 

UMBRELLA  STAND. 

2.  The  plan  of  four  corner  posts  with  mortise  and  tenon  cross 
rails  may  be  effectively  used  in  designing  an  umbrella  stand. 

CRETONNE-COVERED  CABINET. 

3.  A  very  pretty  cabinet  may  be  afforded  by  using  this  same 
plan  of  construction,  and  lining  it  on  the  inside  with  cretonne.  Such 
a  cabinet  would  be  particularly  suitable  for  a  sewing  room  at  home. 


MATERIALS.  Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29). 

Stand:  Stool: 

2  pcs.  %"x9i/4"xl9"  S  2  S     Top.    -           2  pcs.     %' 

3  pcs.  %"x4%"x!5"  S  2  S     Top  rail.        4  pcs.     %' 

4  pcs.  Il/2"xli/2"x30"  S  4  S     Legs.              4  pcs.  Ii/2"xll/2"xl8" 
3  pcs.  l/£"x2i4"xl5"  Trim.                           3  pcs.     3/^"x2^"xlO" 

2  pcs.  3/4"x6i/2"xl3"  Shelf  (soft  wood).     li/2  dozen  li/2"  No. 
1  pc.  %"xli/2"x!5"  Front  edge  of  shelf.   10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 

3  pcs.  34"x2%"xl5"  Lower  cross  rails  and  stretcher. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  have  the  telephone  on  a  stand  rather 
than  on  the  wall;  in  this  case  it  is  well  to  provide  a  stand  and 
stool  on  purpose  for  the  use  of  the  'phone. 

The  one  given  in  this  lesson  is  so  planned  that  when  the  stool 
is  not  in  use  it  hangs  under  the  stand.  In  this  position  it  is  out 
of  the  way  and  still  always  ready  for  immediate  use.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  two  views,  one  with  the  stool  in  front  of  the  stand 
ready  for  use  and  the  other  with  the  stool  hanging  in  position. 


References : 


Modern    American    Telephony    in    All    Its    Branches,    Smith.     Fredrick 

Drake  Co.,  Chicago. 

Telephone  Hand  Book,  Victor  Laughter.     Fredrick  Drake  Co.,  Chicago. 
Drake's  Telephone  Hand  Book,  Moreton.     Fredrick  Drake  Co.,  Chicago. 
Wireless  Telephone  and  Telegraph,  Chas.  Ashley.     American  Technical 
Society. 


266 


18 


TELEPHONESTAHD&STOOL 


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SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGH 


267 

TELEPHONE  STAND  AND  STOOL 

SPECIFICATIONS 
THE  STAND. 

TOP. 

The  top  of  this  stand  is  to  be  made  by  gluing  together  two 
pieces.  This  must  be  done  with  a  dowel  joint.  Clamp  up  the  work 
securely,  remove  all  surplus  glue,  and  leave  it  at  least  twelve  hours 
for  the  glue  to  harden. 

THE  CORNER  POSTS. 

Although  this  material  is  furnished  S  4  S,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  you  to  resurface  it,  making  it  perfectly  square.  Finish  with  a 
sharp  steel  scraper.  Cut  the  required  lengths,  lay  out  and  cut  the 
mortises  to  receive  the  rails. 

THE  TOP  RAILS. 

Notice  that  there  are  top  rails  only  on  three  sides ;  the  front  is 
left  open  to  form  a  shelf. 

The  top  rails  are  to  be  joined  to  the  legs  with  mortise  and 
tenon  joints.  Square  the  stock  for  the  rails,  and  make  them  the 
width  shown  in  the  drawing.  Cut  the  required  length,  allowing 
for  tenons.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  tenons.  Be  sure  that  the  lengths 
of  the  opposite  side  rails  are  the  same  between  shoulders.  Test 
each  tenon  in  the  mortise  for  which  it  is  intended;  they  must  fit 
snugly.  The  tenons  must  not  bind  sidewise,  or  they  may  split  the 
posts. 

THE  BOTTOM  CROSS  RAILS. 

The  bottom  cross  rails  are  to  be  joined  to  the  corner  posts 
with  mortise  and  tenon  joints.  Square  the  stock,  and  make  these 
pieces  the  dimensions  given  in  the  drawing.  Lay  out  and  make 
tenons.  Test  each  tenon  in  its  proper  mortise. 

THE  SHELF. 

The  shelf  takes  the  place  of  a  front  cross  rail.  The  shelf  is 
made  of  soft  material,  but  it  should  have  a  front  edge  of  hardwood. 
It  may  be  made  by  gluing  up  pieces,  the  same  as  you  have  glued 
up  the  top.  Remove  the  clamps  from  the  top,  and  surface  it  on 
both  sides ;  cut  it  the  size  shown  in  the  drawing. 

ASSEMBLING. 

In  work  of  this  kind  you  will  find  it  convenient  to  assemble 
one  pair  of  legs  at  a  time.  Glue  the  joints,  test  with  the  square  to 


268 

make  sure  the  legs  stand  perfectly  square  with  the  cross  rail. 
Clamp  securely  and  leave  for  the  glue  to  harden.  In  like  manner 
clamp  the  opposite  pair  of  legs.  When  these  two  are  well  set,  put 
in  the  back  cross  rail  and  the  stretcher  between  the  lower  cross 
rails  and  assemble.  The  top  is  to  be  fastened  in  position  with 
screws,  either  with  strips  or  the  angle  screws.  When  the  top  is 
fastened  securely  in  position,  put  in  the  shelf  and  fasten  it  by  nail- 
ing through  the  side  rails.  Be  very  careful  in  the  nailing  process 
not  to  bruise  the  work.  With  a  sharp-pointed  nail  set,  drive  the 
nails  slightly  below  the  surface  of  the  wood. 

THE  BINDING  STRIP. 

This  small  strip  is  tacked  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  top  rail 
around  three  sides  of  the  stool,  and  thus  forms  a  carrier  to  hold 
the  stool,  and  also  gives  a  sort  of  panel  appearance  to  the  top  rail ; 
it  should  fit  the  corner  posts  snugly. 

THE  STOOL. 

The  stool  is  to  be  built  almost  exactly  as  the  stand  has  been 
built,  except  that  it  has  a  top  rail  entirely  around.  Prepare  each 
part  and  assemble  the  stool  in  a  similar  manner  to  which  you  have 
constructed  the  stand. 

FINISHING. 

When  both  pieces  of  work  have  been  properly  assembled,  go 
over  them  with  a  sharp  steel  scraper,  and  remove  all  pencil  and  tool 
marks.  Be  sure  the  corners  are  all  sharp  and  distinct.  Wherever 
the  end  grain  is  exposed  it  must  have  special  attention  to  make  it 
perfectly  smooth.  Stain  the  desired  color,  and  finish  with  shellac 
or  varnish. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

KITCHEN  TABLE. 

1.  This  plan  of  constructing  a  table,  with  the  rails  tenoned  into 
the  legs,  has  a  great  many  applications  in  practical  work.    By  using 
heavier  legs,  and  changing  the  size  of  the  top  as  desired,  a  very 
servicable  kitchen  table  may  be  constructed. 

CHAFING  DISH  TABLE. 

2.  With  very  slight  modifications  this  stand  could  be  converted 
into  a  satisfactory  chafing  dish  table.    It  should  have  a  small  cabi- 
net in  which  to  keep  the  chafing  dish  and  utensils.    This  could  be 
easily  prepared  by  using  a  very  wide  skirting  board  with  a  shelf  in 
the  bottom ;  the  cabinet  should  be  provided  with  a  dustproof  door. 


269 


MEDICINE  OR  SHAVING  CABINET 


11/2  doz.  6d  finishing  nails. 

2  doz.  11/4"  brads. 

8  screw  eyes,  No.  114. 


MATERIALS. 

Poplar   (Chap.  III.,  Par.  42)   or  any 
soft  wood. 

Ipc.    7/8"x5l/2"xl8"  S2S  Top. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x43/4"x24"  S2S  Sides. 
Ipc.    7/8"x43/4"xl5"  S2S  Bottom. 

1  pc.   7/8"x3i4"xl5"  S  2  S  Apron. 

2  pcs.  i/2"x3%"xl5"  S2S  Shelves. 
Ipc.  !4"(3-ply)xl5"x20"  S2S   Back. 
Ipc.  i4"(3-ply)xlO"x!5"  S2S   Door 

panel. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x3i/i"x20"  S  2  S  Door  side 

styles. 
2  pcs.  7/8"x3^"xl4"  S  2  S  Door  cross 

rails. 

1  pair  11/2"  hinges. 

1  small  cupboard  catch. 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

In  every  home  it  is  very  important  that  some  place  be  pro- 
vided for  the  care  of  medicines  and  various  home  remedies;  a 
small,  neat  cabinet  with  a  close-fitting  door  is  most  suitable  for 
this  purpose. 

There  is  no  standard  size  for  a  medicine  cabinet/  for  it  is  often 
desirable  to  make  it  to  fit  a  certain  space  in  the  bathroom  or 
wherever  it  is  to  be  used.  It  would  be  well  for  you  to  measure 
your  space  at  home  and  then  make  your  cabinet  to  fit. 

This  lesson  presents  the  principles  of  a  mortised  and  tenoned 
door,  and  since  this  is  such  an  important  piece  of  construction,  you 
should  give  it  special  attention.  A  door  made  of  one  wide  board 
or  with  battens  is  not  so  good  nor  so  neat  for  small  cabinet  work. 

There  are  so  many  uses  for  various  kinds  of  wall  cabinets, 
such  as  shaving  cabinets,  china  cabinets,  built-in  bookcases  and 
the  like  that  you  should  master  these  principles. 


References : 


Cabinet  Work  and  Joinery,  Hasluck. 

Elementary  Cabinet  Work,  F.  H.  Selden.     Rand-McNally  Co.,  Chicago, 

111. 
Inside  Finishing,  King.     American  Book  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


270 


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271 

MEDICINE  OR  SHAVING  CABINET 
SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  TOP. 
Square  the  stock,  lay  out  and  make  it  the  proper  dimensions. 

THE  SIDES. 

Square  the  stock,  lay  out  and  make  the  side  pieces  the  size 
shown  in  the  drawing.  Although  the  material  is  furnished  S  2  S, 
these  pieces  should  be  carefully  surfaced,  and  finished  with  a  steel 
scraper. 

THE  RABBET. 

The  side  pieces  and  the  top  are  to  be  rabbeted  to  receive  the 
back.  If  you  rabbet  them  with  a  plane  this  will  cut  away  the  mate- 
rial to  the  end  of  each  piece,  and  when  the  work  is  assembled  will 
leave  holes,  which  will  have  to  be  neatly  filled.  If  you  desire,  you 
can  cut  these  rabbets  only  as  far  as  required,  by  laying  them  out 
with  a  marking  gauge,  and  carefully  cutting  them  with  a  pocket 
knife,  first  scribing  deeply  on  one  gauge  line,  and  then  on  the  other 
until  the  rabbets  are  completely  cut  out. 

THE  BOTTOM. 

The  bottom  is  to  be  made  the  width  of  the  sides,  less  the 
thickness  of  the  back.  You  will  notice  in  the  drawing  that  the 
back  laps  down  upon  the  bottom.  Square  the  stock  and  make  this 
piece. 

THE  BACK. 

The  back  piece  should  be  furnished  in  one  board  of  three-ply 
material.  You  will  notice  that  this  is  made  up  of  three  thin  pieces 
glued  together.  The  grain  is  reversed;  this  makes  a  very  strong 
board.  You  need  not  cut  it  to  size  until  the  frame  is  assembled. 

THE  BOTTOM  SKIRT  BOARD. 

The  bottom  skirt  board  joins  the  side  pieces  with  a  plain  butt 
joint.  Square  the  stick  and  make  the  piece  the  required  size. 

ASSEMBLING. 

This  work  is  to  be  assembled  with  nails  driven  through  from 
the  outside.  These  nails  should  be  carefully  set  with  a  sharp- 
pointed  nail  set.  Make  sure  that  the  cabinet  is  perfectly  square  in 
every  way  when  the  back  is  nailed  in  position. 


272 

THE  SHELVES. 

The  material  for  the  shelves  should  be  planed  to  the  exact  size 
shown  in  the  drawing.  You  may  make  the  shelves  adjustable  if 
you  wish,  allowing  them  to  rest  on  small  screw  eyes. 

THE  DOOR. 

The  door  is  to  be  put  together  with  mortise  and  tenon  joints,  as 
indicated  in  the  drawing.  The  door  material  is  to  be  plowed  or 
grooved  to  receive  the  panel,  which  is  of  14",  three-ply.  This  plan 
of  making  a  door  is  a  very  excellent  one ;  you  should  exercise  great 
care  and  learn  to  do  it  well.  Practically  all  doors  for  fine  cabinets 
are  made  in  just  this  manner.  Study  the  drawing  very  carefully 
and  execute  each  piece  accurately.  Assemble  the  door  with  glue. 
You  should  not  glue  the  panel ;  it  will  be  less  likely  to  warp  if  left 
free  to  contract  or  expand  with  changes  of  temperature.  Clamp 
the  door,  and  allow  it  to  stand  at  least  twelve  hours  for  the  glue  to 
harden.  When  it  is  thoroughly  dry,  with  a  sharp  plane,  plane  all 
surfaces,  and  finish  with  a  steel  scraper  and  sandpaper.  Plane  the 
edges  to  make  it  exactly  fit  the  cabinet.  Put  on  the  hinges  and  the 
spring  catch. 

FINISHING. 

Medicine  cabinets  are  usually  finished  white.  To  do  this  give 
it  two  coats  of  white  paint,  allowing  each  to  dry  thoroughly,  and  if 
you  desire  to  have  a  very  beautiful  finish,  one  or  two  coats  of  white 
enamel.  If  you  prefer,  you  may  stain  it  the  desired  color  and  finish 
with  shellac  or  varnish.  It  is  customary  to  finish  both  the  inside 
and  outside  of  a  small  cabinet  like  this.  NOTE :  If  this  is  to  be 
used  for  a  shaving  cabinet  you  will  find  it  very  convenient  to  have 
a  mirror  in  the  door  panel. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

CHINA  CABINET. 

1.  By  enlarging  this  cabinet  as  one's  needs  may  require,  and 
providing  it  with  glass  doors,  a  china  cabinet  could  be  made. 

BOOK  CASE. 

2.  The  plan  of  the  china  cabinet  will  require  but  little  modifi- 
cation in  making  a  book  case. 

SCHOOL  LOCKERS. 

3.  Inexpensive  school  lockers  may  be  constructed  on  the  plan 
given  in  this  lesson;  the  size  and  shape  could  be  determined  by 
local  needs. 


273 

CEDAR  CHEST 


MATERIALS. 
Red  Cedar  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  45) . 

Sufficient  number  of  pieces  to  make : 
2  sides    z/^xliy^xte"     S2S 
2  ends    ^'xliy^'xlS"     S2S 
2  pcs.      3/4"xl7"x43"     S  2  S     Top  and  bottom. 

2  pcs.  i/2"xl"x43"     S  4  S     Lid  trim. 

2  pcs.  V2"xl"xl8"     S  4  S     Lid  trim. 

4  pcs.  23/4"x3"x3"  (Glued)  S  4  S     Legs. 

5  pcs.  sheet  copper  2"x6"  for  trim. 
34  tacks  to  match. 

1  pr.  hinges  with  screws.  4  castors. 

5  doz.  114"  brads.  1  pr.  copper  handles  with  screws. 

5  pcs.  ^"x!2"  dowel.  1  doz.  li/j,"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

For  a  great  many  years  cedar  chests  have  been  popular  for 
storing  furs,  woolens,  linens  and  other  fine  fabrics  where  they 
would  be  free  from  moths.  Red  cedar  wood  contains  a  peculiar, 
everlasting  odor  which  seems  to  be  very  unpleasant  to  insects,  at 
least  they  will  not  go  about  it.  This  unusual  quality,  connected 
with  the  fact  that  it  will  last  indefinitely,  has  made  it  a  very  valu- 
able wood. 

Red  cedar  is  rather  a  difficult  material  to  work  on  account  of 
the  knots,  however  these  knots  do  not  lessen  its  value;  in  fact, 
when  properly  finished,  they  add  to  its  beauty  and  fragrance. 


References : 

The  Story  of  Red  Cedar.     Red  Cedar  Chest  Co.,  Statesville,  N.  C. 


274 


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275 

CEDAR  CHEST  SPECIFICATIONS 

PREPARING  THE  STOCK. 

As  it  is  practically  impossible  to  get  wide  boards  of  cedar,  it 
will  be  necessary  for  you  to  glue  up  narrow  boards  in  forming  the 
bottom  and  top,  and  also  the  sides  and  ends.  On  account  of  the 
knots  (a  feature  which  adds  beauty  and  value  to  the  wood),  you 
will  find  it  rather  difficult  to  plane.  You  must  have  your  plane  very 
keen,  and  make  up  your  mind  to  be  extremely  patient.  Square  the 
edges  and  join  them  with  dowels,  making  a  board  of  sufficient  width 
for  the  bottom.  In  like  manner  glue  up  material  for  the  two  sides, 
the  two  ends  and  the  top.  When  the  glue  is  thoroughly  hardened, 
with  a  sharp  smoothing  plane  resurface  the  boards.  It  will  pos- 
sibly not  be  necessary  to  plane  them  anywhere  except  on  the  joints ; 
the  remainder  of  the  surfacing  can  be  done  with  a  sharp  steel 
scraper. 

THE  SIDES. 

Lay  out  and  cut  the  two  sides  the  dimensions  given  in  the 
drawing.  Be  sure  they  are  absolutely  square,  and  exactly  the  same 
length  and  width.  Prepare  the  two  ends,  and  compare  to  see  that 
they  are  exactly  the  same  size.  You  will  notice  that  the  side  pieces 
are  to  be  rabbeted  to  lap  over  on  the  ends  (this  sort  of  joint  is  not 
absolutely  necessary;  you  may  join  them  with  a  straight  butt  joint 
if  you  desire).  The  rabbet  will  not  be  difficult  to  make.  It  is  to 
be  laid  out  with  a  marking  gauge,  or  a  straight  edge  and  sharp- 
pointed  knife;  it  may  be  cut  down  with  the  back  saw,  and  cut  out 
to  the  gauge  line  with  a  chisel.  All  the  corners  are  to  be  formed  in 
the  same  manner. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  your  box  by  nailing  through  the  side  pieces  into  the 
ends,  using  small  finishing  nails  or  brads.  The  bottom  is  to  be 
nailed  through  into  the  sides  and  ends ;  see  that  it  projects  evenly 
on  all  sides  and  at  both  ends.  Test  frequently  to  make  sure  that 
the  box  is  perfectly  square  when  the  bottom  is  nailed  on. 

The  triangular  strips  are  glued  in  each  corner  to  reinforce  the 
joints.  They  may  also  be  bradded,  but  this  must  be  very  carefully 
done  to  avoid  disturbing  the  joints.  You  should  lay  the  box  flat  on 
the  side,  while  driving  small  brads  into  the  side  pieces;  then  turn 
it  on  to  the  ends  when  you  nail  into  the  end  pieces. 

THE  LEGS. 
The  legs  are  to  be  made  the  desired  shape,  and  fastened  one 


276 

on  each  corner  with  screws  from  the  inside  through  the  bottom, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

THE  LID. 

The  lid  is  to  be  bound  on  both  ends,  and  on  the  front  edge  with 
a  narrow  strip  which  extends  a  little  below  the  lower  edge  of  the 
lid,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  This  strip  is  to  be  joined  at  the  cor- 
ners with  a  mitered  joint.  It  is  fastened  to  the  lid  with  brads 
driven  straight  through.  Hinge  the  lid  to  the  back  edge  of  the  box ; 
make  sure  that  it  fits  perfectly  and  works  easily. 

THE  HANDLES. 

The  handles  are  to  be  made  the  desired  shape,  and  to  be  fas- 
tened with  screws  from  the  inside  of  the  box. 

THE  ORNAMENTAL  TRIM. 

The  ornamental  trim  is  of  art  copper;  it  may  be  cut  any 
shape  you  desire.  Some  simple  design,  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 
will  be  found  most  pleasing. 

FINISHING. 

With  a  very  sharp  steel  scraper,  remove  all  pencil  or  tool 
marks  and  make  every  surface  perfectly  smooth.  Finish  it  with 
shellac  or  with  rub  varnish.  Do  not  stain  it,  and  do  not  use  shellac 
or  any  kind  of  finish  on  the  inside.  Leave  the  natural  wood  ex- 
posed on  the  inside  in  order  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  its  fragrance. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

COVERED  BEDROOM  CHEST. 

1.  A  very  much  cheaper,  and  fairly  satisfactory,  chest  may  be 
provided  where  red  cedar  is  too  expensive.     This  chest  may  be 
made  of  any  sort  of  wood.    It  should  be  well  constructed,  and  may 
be  neatly  lined  on  the  inside  with  imitation  of  cedar  paper.     On 
the  outside  it  should  be  neatly  covered  with  cretonne,  denim  or 
some  other  suitable  material. 

WINDOW  SEAT  CHEST. 

2.  A  chest  built  on  the  plan  shown  in  Suggestion  No.  2  will  be 
found  very  suitable  for  a  window  seat.    It  may  be  upholstered  or 
furnished  with  cushions.    It  should  be  finished  to  correspond  with 
the  furniture  of  the  room  in  which  it  is  to  be  used. 


277 


WRITING  DESK 


MATERIALS. 
Oak  (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29). 


4  pcs.  Ii/2"xll/2"x32"  S4S 


1  pc. 
rail. 

1  pc. 
rail. 

2  peg. 
rail. 

3  pcs. 


S2S 


Legs. 
Back 


7/8"x4"x28"       S  2  S     Front 
7/8"x5%"x20"  S2S    Side 
Bot- 


3/i"x6i/2"x28"  S  2  S 

torn  (soft  wood) . 
1  pc.      7/8"x7"x32"       S2S  Top. 
3  pcs.     7/8"x5%"x32"  S  2  S    Lid. 
1  pc.      i/2"x7"x32"       S2S  Back 

of  paper  holders. 


4  pcs.  i/2"x2i/2"x7" 
4  pcs.  i4"x2i/2"x8i/2" 
1  pc.     i/2"x3"x32" 


Sides  of  paper  holders. 

Front  of  paper  holders. 

Base  of  paper  holders. 
2  pcs.  -yi"x2V2"x20"     Bottom  cross  rails. 
1  pc.     %ffxBy4>"x2S"     Stretcher. 

i/2  doz.  li/2"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws.       2  doz.  6d  fin.  nails. 
l!/2  doz.  •%"  No.  6  R.  H.  blue  screws.     1  pc.  I4"xl2"  dowel  rod. 
1  pair  hinges. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

The  writing  desk  or  study  table  is  one  of  the  most  useful  arti- 
cles of  furniture  found  in  a  boy's  room,  and  the  fact  that  a  boy  has 
made  his  own  table  always  adds  considerable  to  its  value. 

This  writing  desk  is  so  designed  as  to  provide  ample  room 
inside  to  care  for  stationery  and  valuable  papers.  If  desirable  this 
space  could  be  divided  with  partitions  so  as  to  classify  papers  more 
easily. 

The  mortise  and  tenon  joints  will  require  careful  work,  but 
when  completed  will  be  well  worth  all  the  effort.  The  principles 
set  forth  in  this  lesson  are  employed  a  great  deal  in  all  kinds  of 
desk  and  table  construction,  so  you  should  endeavor  to  master 
them. 


References : 

Part  II,  Mission  Furniture,  Windsor.     Popular  Mechanics  Co.,  Chicago. 


278 


Id  _ 


WRITING  DESK 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  DESIGN 


SHELVES  ANPP/GEON  HOLES 


Mi6HT  HAVE  PRAWER  HERE 


279 

WRITING  DESK  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  LEGS. 

Although  these  legs  are  furnished  S  4  S,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  you  to  plane  them  with  a  very  sharp  plane,  testing  to  make 
sure  that  they  are  perfectly  square.  Finish  with  a  sharp  steel 
scraper.  In  cutting  the  length  of  the  legs  note  that  the  lid  of  the 
writing  desk  slants  forward,  and  thus  the  front  pair  of  legs  is  not 
so  long  as  the  rear  pair.  Observe  that  the  lower  edges  of  the  side 
rail  are  perfectly  square  with  the  legs.  These  side  rails  are  to 
join  the  legs  with  a  mortise  and  tenon  joint.  If  you  will  make 
the  bottom  end  of  the  legs  the  working  end,  and  make  all  meas- 
urements from  these  points,  in  locating  the  mortises,  you  will 
have  no  difficulty  on  account  of  the  slant  of  the  top.  Lay  out  and 
cut  the  mortises. 

THE  CROSS  RAILS. 

Square  the  stock  and  make  the  cross  rails  as  indicated  in  the 
drawing.  Notice  that  the  back  cross  rail  is  the  same  width  as  the 
widest  portion  of  the  side  cross  rails  (5^").  Form  all  tenons  to 
fit  their  respective  mortises. 

Square  the  stock  and  make  the  lower  cross  rail.  Cut  the 
tenons,  making  sure  that  the  distance  between  shoulders  is  the 
same  as  in  the  top  cross  rail. 

THE  STRETCHER. 

The  stretcher  is  to  join  the  lower  cross  rails  with  a  mortise 
and  tenon  joint.  Study  the  drawing  carefully  in  getting  the  length 
of  this  piece.  Notice  that  it  will  have  to  be  longer  than  the  top 
cross  rail,  because  it  does  not  stand  between  the  legs,  but  is  be- 
tween the  bottom  cross  rails. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  one  side  at  a  time.  Glue  all  tenons  in  their  places. 
Test  to  make  sure  that  the  legs  and  rails  stand  perfectly  square. 
Clamp  securely  and  allow  the  glue  to  harden.  When  you  have 
assembled  the  right  and  left  ends  of  the  writing  desk,  put  in  the 
front  and  the  rear  rail  and  also  the  stretcher.  Glue  them  in  posi- 
tion and  clamp  them  securely,  making  sure  that  all  angles  are  per- 
fectly square.  (The  plan  of  gluing  and  clamping  a  piece  of  work, 
part  at  a  time,  will  usually  insure  satisfactory  results.) 

THE  TOP. 

A  portion  of  the  top  is  perfectly  level.  This  may  be  fastened 
with  angle  screws,  or  with  blocks  screwed  on  from  the  under  side. 


280 

THE  LID. 

This  is  to  be  made  of  two  or  more  pieces  glued  and  doweled 
together.  In  order  that  the  lid  may  fit  perfectly,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  plane  the  top  ends  of  the  front  leg  and  edges  of  the  side 
rails.  Do  this  very  carefully,  and  lay  the  top  in  position  to  see 
that  it  fits  properly.  It  will  have  to  be  beveled  slightly  at  the  top 
edge  where  it  is  to  be  hinged  to  the  stationary  portion  of  the  top. 
The  hinges  must  be  gained  into  the  wood,  so  as  not  to  leave  a 
crack  at  this  joint. 

THE  BACK  AND  LETTER  POCKETS. 

The  back  piece,  which  holds  the  letter  pockets,  is  attached  to 
a  small  base  strip.  The  uprights  and  the  main  back  piece  are 
nailed  through  from  the  bottom  of  this  bas"e  strip.  This  part  may 
all  be  assembled  independent  of  the  remainder  of  the  desk,  and 
then  fastened  to  the  desk  top  with  two  screws  in  the  bottom  of 
each  letter  pocket;  -in  this  position  the  screws  will  not  be  seen. 

THE  FINISHING. 

When  the  work  is  all  assembled,  go  over  it  with  a  sharp  steel 
scraper  and  remove  all  pencil  and  tool  marks;  finish  with  fine 
sandpaper.  Stain  the  desired  color  and  finish  with  shellac  or  rub 
varnish. 


Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

DRESSING  TABLE. 

1.  By  using  this  same  plan  of  construction  provided  with  a 
level  top,  and  adding  a  wide  central  mirror,  with  a  small  mirror 
hinged  on  each  side,  a  pleasing  dressing  table  may  be  made. 

SERVING  TABLE. 

2.  This  plan  of  construction,  with  a  very  few  modifications, 
will  be  suitable  for  a  serving  table. 


281 


LIBRARY  TABLE 


MATERIALS. 
Oak   (Chap.  III.,  Par.  29). 

4  pcs.  I"x7%"x49"       S2S 

Top. 
2  pcs.     y8"x5^"x48"   S  2  S 

Top  side  rails. 
2  pcs.     7/8"x5i/4"x28"   S  2  S 

Top  end  rails. 
2  pcs.  I%"xl%"x2G"   S  4  S 

Leg  cross  rails. 


1  pc.      I"x8"x48"  S2S 

3  pcs.     5/8"x4i/4"x24"  s  2  S 

2  pcs.     7/8"x4i/2"x26"  S  2  S 

4  pcs.  3i/2"x3i/2"x30"  S  4  S 
2  pcs.     5/8"xli/2"x26"  S  4  S 
8  pcs.       I"xl"x5"  S2S 


Shelf. 

Drawer  sides  and  ends. 

Draw  carrier  supports. 

Legs. 

Drawer  carrier. 

Corner  blocks. 


1  pc.   (3-ply)  I4"xl5"x20"  drawer  bottom. 

2  doz.  li/2"  No.  10  F.  H.  B.  screws. 
1  doz.  li/2"  brads. 

li/2"  doz.  11,4"  brads. 

1  pc.  is^xis/^xr  for  knobs. 

1  pc.  y±"  dowel  27"  long. 

INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

There  is  probably  no  one  piece  of  furniture  which  is  more 
popular  than  the  library  table;  it  has  a  function  in  every  home 
and  adds  a  touch  of  comfort  and  refinement  which  no  other  arti- 
cle can  quite  furnish. 

The  modern  straight  line  design  makes  it  possible  to  produce 
substantial  and  artistic  effects  in  handmade  furniture.  The  li- 
brary table  offers  excellent  opportunities  to  carry  out  these  de- 
signs. 

The  design  presented  in  this  lesson  will  be  found  very  pleas- 
ing in  all  its  proportions  and  the  construction  has  been  worked 
out  to  avoid  difficult  and  elaborate  processes. 


References : 

The    Practical    Cabinet    Maker   and    Furniture    Designer,    Hodgson. 

Drake  Co.,  Chicago. 
Windsor's  Mission  Furniture.     Popular  Mechanics  Co.,  Chicago. 


F. 


282 


LIBRARY  TABLE 


TOP  SET  ON 
WITH  SCREWS 


-48" *j 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORIGINAL  PESIGH 


(I 


HI 


283 

THE  LIBRARY  TABLE  SPECIFICATIONS 

THE  TOP. 

The  top  is  to  be  made  by  gluing  together  a  number  of  pieces. 
This  must  be  done  with  great  care.  Be  sure  that  the  edges  are 
perfectly  jointed.  Assemble  with  dowels.  Clamp  securely  and 
leave  for  at  least  twelve  hours  for  the  glue  to  harden. 

THE  LEGS. 

Although  the  legs  are  furnished  S  4  S,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  resurface  them  with  a  very  sharp  plane  and  finish  with  a  sharp 
steel  scraper.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  mortises  as  indicated  in  the 
drawing. 

THE  TOP  RAILS. 

The  top  rails  are  to  join  the  legs  with  mortise  and  tenon 
joints.  Square  the  stock,  lay  out  and  make  the  rails.  Form  the 
tenons  to  fit  the  mortises  in  the  legs.  Be  sure  that  the  rails  for 
opposite  sides  are  exactly  the  same  length  between  shoulders. 

LOWER  CROSS  RAILS. 

The  lower  cross  rails  are  to  join  the  legs  with  mortise  and 
tenon  joints.  Square  the  stock  and  cut  these  tenons  to  fit  the 
mortises  in  the  legs.  Test  each  tenon  in  the  mortise  for  which 
it  is  intended. 

ASSEMBLING. 

Assemble  one  end  at  a  time.  Glue  the  tenons  into  the  mor- 
tises, clamp  securely,  testing  frequently  with  the  square.  It  would 
be  well  to  allow  this  section  to  harden  before  continuing  the  as- 
sembling. In  like  manner  assemble  the  second  end. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  front  cross  rail  has  an  opening  cut 
for  the  drawer.  This  should  be  done  before  it  is  assembled. 
Complete  the  assembling  of  the  frame  by  gluing  the  two  cross 
rails  in  position  and  clamping. 

THE  SHELF. 

Square  the  stock  and  prepare  the  shelf,  which  is  to  serve  as  a 
stretcher,  and  brace  the  lower  end  of  the  legs.  This  shelf  is  set 
into  the  cross  rails,  and  is  fastened  to  them  with  screws  from  the 
lower  side.  Be  sure  that  the  legs  stand  perfectly  square  with  the 
top  rail  when  these  screws  are  inserted. 


284 

THE  TOP. 

Remove  the  clamps  from  the  top  and  plane  it  perfectly  smooth. 
Finishing  the  top  is  the  most  important  part  of  this  piece  of  work ; 
it  must  be  done  perfectly.  Use  the  steel  scraper  to  make  sure  all 
plane  marks,  and  rough  places  are  removed.  It  will  be  observed 
that  notches  are  cut  in  the  corners  to  allow  the  legs  to  extend 
through  slightly;  this  must  be  done  with  great  care,  for  these  joints 
will  be  exposed.  The  top  ends  of  the  legs  should  be  rounded,  or 
chamfered,  and  perfectly  smoothed  before  the  top  is  fastened  on. 
When  the  top  is  perfectly  fitted,  it  should  be  fastened  in  position 
with  screws. 

THE  DRAWER. 

Prepare  the  drawer  front  so  it  will  fit  snugly  into  the  opening 
left  for  the  drawer.  Rabbet  the  ends  to  receive  the  side  rails,  as 
shown  in  the  detail  in  the  drawing.  Prepare  the  back  and  side 
rails.  The  side  rails  are  to  be  plowed  to  receive  the  14"  three-ply 
bottom. 

ASSEMBLING  THE  DRAWER. 

The  drawer  should  be  assembled  with  nails.  The  side  pieces, 
are  to  be  nailed  into  the  rabbet  formed  at  each  end  of  the  drawer 
front.  Test  to  make  sure  that  it  is  perfectly  square,  when  the  bot- 
tom is  nailed  in. 

DRAWER  CARRIER. 

The  drawer  carriers  are  rabbeted  strips  nailed  entirely  across 
the  lower  side  of  the  table  top ;  small  strips  nailed  on  the  sides  of 
the  drawer  slide  in  these  rabbets.  Adjust  these  carriers  so  the 
drawer  will  work  smoothly. 

THE  KNOBS. 
The  knobs  are  to  be  made  of  wood,  shaped  to  suit  your  taste. 

FINISHING. 

When  the  work  is  entirely  assembled,  go  over  it  with  a  sharp 
steel  scraper  and  finish  with  very  fine  sandpaper.  Stain  it  the  de- 
sired color;  give  it  a  coat  of  filler,  or  shellac  and  finish  with  rub 
varnish. 

Optional  and  Home  Projects  Employing  Similar  Principles. 

1.  SCHOOL  COOKING  TABLE. 

2.  LABORATORY  TABLE. 

3.  SEWING  TABLE. 


285 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  COMMUNITY  RESEARCH. 

No.  1.  Examine  the  methods  of  hanging  porch  swings  in 
your  community  and  see  what  advantages  and  disadvantages  you 
observe  in  each. 

No.  2.  Examine  the  finish  on  the  furniture  in  your  home. 
Can  you  determine  how  it  was  made?  Call  at  a  local  furniture 
store  and  ask  the  clerk  to  show  you  some  waxed  furniture  and 
some  that  has  a  rub  varnish  finish.  Ask  him  to  explain  the  ad- 
vantages of  each. 

No.  3.  In  designing  any  piece  of  furniture,  the  most  impor- 
tant point  to  consider  is,  that  it  shall  be  useful  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended,  and  second  that  it  shall  be  pleasing  in 
appearance.  Ask  your  local  furniture  dealer  to  show  you  the 
points  of  advantage  in  different  styles  of  chairs,  tables  and  other 
furniture.  Examine  the  furniture  in  your  home  and  see  whether 
it  is  all  well  designed. 

No.  4.  What  will  be  the  result  if  a  wide  board  is  laid  flat 
upon  the  ground  and  left  for  some  time?  Which  way  will  it 
warp?  You  will  find  it  interesting  to  experiment  with  a  worth- 
less board  in  this  manner,  noticing  which  way  it  warps;  turn  it 
over  and  note  the  results  after  a  few  days.  This  may  help  you 
to  understand  the  action  which  often  takes  place  if  you  stain  or 
shellac  only  one  side  of  a  thin  board. 

No.  5.  Perhaps  you  can  find  some  piece  of  construction  work 
about  the  school,  or  at  home,  in  which  the  joints  have  opened 
slightly.  What  does  this  indicate  regarding  the  condition  of  the 
lumber  when  the  piece  of  work  was  constructed? 

No.  6.  Do  you  know  of  any  batten  doors  about  the  buildings 
of  your  neighborhood?  Examine  these  doors  to  see  whether  or 
not  they  are  properly  braced.  What  remedy  can  you  suggest  for 
a  batten  door  that  is  beginning  to  sag?  Have  you  tried  it? 

No.  7.  For  what  purposes  have  you  seen  cedar  wood  used? 
Examine  as  many  wood  fence  posts  as  you  can  find  and  see  what 
sort  of  timber  they  are.  Remove  some  of  the  dirt  from  around 
the  post  and  scratch  the  post  with  your  pocketknife  to  determine 
how  deeply  it  has  rotted.  What  kind  of  timber  shows  the  great- 
est endurance?  It  may  be  necessary  for  you  to  inquire  how  long 
some  of  these  posts  have  been  in  the  ground. 


286 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  PROBLEMS. 

1.  Mention  two  or  three  points  which  should  have  careful 
consideration  in  designing  a  porch  swing. 

2.  Name  three  kinds  of  wood  which  would  be  suitable  for  a 
porch  swing. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  straight  line  designs  in  furniture  ? 

4.  Give  two  reasons  why  quartered  oak  is  preferable  to  plain 
sawn  oak  for  furniture  construction. 

5.  Why  is  quartered  oak  more  expensive  than  plain  sawn 
oak? 

6.  About  what  per  cent,  would  you  have  to  add  to  the  price 
of  a  plain  oak  piano  bench  to  equal  the  price  of  the  same  bench 
made  of  quartered  oak? 

7.    How  is  a  fine  varnish  finish  produced  ? 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a 
wax  finish? 

9.  What  are  the  important  properties  that  make  red  cedar  a 
very  valuable  wood? 

10.  For  what  purposes  have  you  used  three-ply  material  in 
your  shop  work?     What  advantages  has  it  over  a  single  board  of 
equal  thickness  ? 

11.  What  kind  of  woods  require  a  filler  in  producing  a  fine 
finish?     Why  is  this  true? 

12.  Estimate  the  number  of  board  feet  in  each  article  which 
you  have  made  from  this  section.     Find  out  the  price  per  hundred 
and  figure  the  cost. 

13.  How  could  you  tell  what  price  to  ask  if  you  were  offering 
a  shop-made  article  for  sale  ? 

14.  If  by  taking  a  course  of  training  as  a  mechanic  a  boy  can 
increase  his  wages  from  $7  to  $12  per  week,  how  much  would  his 
increase  be  for  a  year?    If  his  course  cost  him  $750,  how  long  would 
it  take  for  his  increase  in  wages  to  repay  the  entire  expense  ? 

15.  Suppose  John  and  Harry  are  two  boys  of  equal  age,  abil- 
ity and  opportunities;  John  quits  school  and  goes  to  work  at  $8 
per  week ;  Harry  continues  in  school  and  after  four  years  of  indus- 
trial training  goes  to  work  at  $15  per  week.     After  Harry  has  been 
at  work  ten  years   (John  fourteen)   how  much  has  each  earned? 
Suppose  it  cost  Harry  $200  per  year  to  remain  in  school,  after  re- 
turning that  money,  how  much  has  he  profited  over  John  ?    Which 
boy's  future  is  most  promising? 


287 


SUPPLEMENT 


288 


CHAPTER  I 
MECHANICAL  AND  SHOP  DRAWINGS 

THE  subject  of  drawing  is  very  important  in  all  lines  of  in- 
dustrial work.    A  photograph,  picture  or  perspective  draw- 
ing shows  how  a  thing  will  appear,  but  does  not  give  di- 
mensions nor  show  the  detail  of  how  it  is  made.    A  workman  who 
is  going  to  execute  a  piece  of  work  in  the  shop  must  know  the 
exact  size  and  shape  of  every  part.     In  order  that  the  man  who 
is  designing  the  work  may  give  correct  ideas  to  him  the  science 
of  mechanical  drawing  has  been  developed. 

When  you  first  look  at  a  mechanical  drawing  it  seems  very 
complicated;  it  is  not  expected  that  you  should  be  able  to  tell  im- 
mediately just  how  it  is  constructed.  It  requires  considerable 
thought  and  study  to  understand  a  mechanical  drawing  well 
enough  to  undertake  the  work.  In  fact,  you  must  use  your  imag- 
ination a  great  deal,  but  after  you  have  studied  a  few  mechanical 
drawings  they  will  soon  become  quite  clear.  There  are  just  a  few 
things  which  you  need  to  know  about  the  subject  of  drawing  in 
order  to  interpret  mechanical  drawings  correctly,  because  there 
are  certain  recognized  and  established  ways  of  representing  cer- 
tain ideas.  These  established  ways  are  called  conventions  and  you 
should  acquaint  yourself  with  these  conventions  so  you  will  un- 
derstand exactly  what  they  mean. 

HEAVY  LINES. 

Heavy,  solid,  black  lines  are  used  to  denote  edges  of  material 
which  stand  in  plain  view. 

Very  heavy  lines  are  also  used  for  border  lines. 

DOTTED  LINES. 

In  looking  at  an  object  there  are  of  course  a  great  many  parts 
and  lines  which  you  are  unable  to  see  from  any  one  view.  In  a 
picture  these  would  not  be  presented  at  all,  but  in  mechanical 
drawing  the  hidden  parts  are  represented  by  dotted  lines.  At 
first  they  may  have  a  tendency  to  confuse  you  just  a  little,  but  if 
you  will  remember  that  dotted  lines  always  represent  parts  which 
lie  back  of  the  parts  represented  by  the  heavy  line,  you  will  soon 
learn  to  understand  mechanical  drawings. 


289 

DIMENSIONS. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  about  a  mechanical  draw- 
ing is  the  fact  that  it  gives  dimensions,  that  is,  it  tells  the  exact 
size  of  every  part.  In  order  that  you  may  understand  perfectly 
the  point  from  which  the  measurements  are  taken,  broken  lines 
are  used  with  little  arrow  heads  at  each  end  to  show  you  where 
the  dimensions  start  and  end.  To  illustrate,  if  you  see  a  broken 
line  with  a  figure  12"  somewhere  in  the  line,  that  means  that  in 
the  finished  article  it  is  12  inches  from  the  point  represented  by 
one  arrow  head  to  the  other. 

CIRCLES. 

Circles  and  curves  are  usually  indicated  in  mechanical  draw- 
ings by  having  the  diameter  (marked  D)  or  the  radius  (marked 
R)  given.  The  point  where  the  compass  should  rest  when  the 
circle  is  drawn  is  also  indicated.  In  measuring  distances  between 
circles  the  measurements  are  taken  from  the  center  of  one  to  the 
center  of  the  other. 

SCALE. 

Mechanical  drawings  are  usually  drawn  to  some  definite 
scale,  because  it  is  not  often  practical  to  make  a  drawing  the  same 
size  as  the  object,  unless  the  object  is  very  small.  By  drawing  to 
scale,  we  mean  that  the  drawing  is  a  certain  fractional  part  of  the 
size  of  the  complete  object.  For  illustration,  1"  is  sometimes  used 
to  represent  1  ft.  or  i"  or  4"  for  a  foot.  Of  course,  if  the  drawing 
is  for  some  very  large  piece  of  construction,  such  as  a  house  or  a 
bridge,  small  fractions  of  an  inch  will  be  used  to  represent  a  foot ; 
if  the  drawing  deals  with  some  smaller  article,  as  a  chair  or  foot- 
stool, 1",  2",  4",  or  even  6",  may  be  used  to  represent  a  foot.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  dimensions  given  on  the 
drawings  always  refer  to  the  sizes  of  the  completed  article  and  not 
to  the  size  of  the  drawing. 

VIEWS. 

In  mechanical  or  shop  drawing  it  is  customary  to  give  three 
views  of  the  thing  which  is  to  be  built,  and  of  an  ordinary  piece 
of  work  the  three  views  will  be  sufficient.  However,  if  the  thing 
is  very  complicated  it  may  then  be  necessary  to  make  more  than 
the  three  views.  But  the  three  regular  views,  known  as  the  plan, 
front  elevation  and  end  elevation,  are  the  ones  that  are  commonly 
presented.  These  are  the  regular  views  used  throughout  this  text. 

10-Voc. 


290 

PLAN. 

The  plan  of  an  object  simply  shows  how  it  would  appear  if 
looked  down  upon  directly  from  above.  Of  course  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  get  in  a  position  where  you  could  see  all  of  an  article 
exactly  as  shown  in  the  plan,  for  the  plan  represents  it  as  seen 
in  parallel  lines,  that  is,  as  though  you  were  looking  straight  down 
upon  every  part  at  the  same  time.  All  parts  which  would  be  in 
view  from  this  position  are  indicated  by  solid  black  lines  in  the 
drawing;  of  course  there  would  be  many  underneath  and  hidden 
parts  to  be  shown  by  dotted  lines. 

FRONT  ELEVATION. 

By  the  front  elevation  we  mean  the  representation  of  the 
article  as  seen  from  straight  in  front,  when  it  is  (sitting)  on  its 
natural  base.  The  front  elevation  is  seen  at  right  angles  to  the 
plan;  the  hidden  parts  are  represented  in  their  proper  positions 
by  dotted  lines. 

END  ELEVATION. 

By  the  end  elevation  we  mean  the  appearance  of  the  article 
from  the  right  end,  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  plan  and  to  the 
front  elevation.  Of  course  in  the  end  elevation  the  black  lines 
would  represent  the  parts  which  would  stand  in  plain  view  as 
seen  from  the  end,  and  the  dotted  lines  would  represent  the  hidden 
or  unseen  parts  in  their  proper  positions.  You  will  notice  that 
this  principle  is  true  of  each  view.  These  three  views  of  an  ob- 
ject should  be  sufficient  to  enable  one  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the 
full  construction.  Learn  to  study  the  drawings  very  carefully  in 
order  to  get  the  desired  information;  this  is  exactly  what  every 
mechanic  who  works  at  any  line  of  construction  work  must  do. 
If  you  will  provide  yourself  with  the  proper  equipment  and  work 
out  the  following  lessons  in  Mechanical  Drawing  you  will  then 
understand  these  principles  pretty  thoroughly.  This  is  an  im- 
portant part  of  industrial  work,  for  you  should  learn  not  only  to 
read  drawings,  but  to  prepare  simple  working  drawings  for  any- 
thing which  you  may  desire  to  make.  Throughout  this  book  the 
photographs  at  the  opening  of  each  lesson  will  give  you  a  clear 
idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  object  presented  and  the  working 
drawings  will  show  you  its  exact  construction. 


291 


THE  DRAWING  OUTFIT. 

The  drawing  outfit  need  not  be  expensive,  but  it  should  be 
good  enough  to  enable  you  to  do  accurate  work;  you  can  make 
your  own  drawing  board  and  T-square  by  following  the  instruc- 
tions given  in  this  text. 

The  following  illustration  shows  rather  a  complete  outfit, 
some  of  the  articles  may  be  omitted  in  your  early  work: 


Figure  1. 

THE  DRAWING  INSTRUMENTS. 

Drawing  instruments  are  furnished  at  prices  ranging  from  a 
few  cents  up  to  many  dollars;  your  work  will  not  demand  a  very 
expensive  set,  but  it  should  contain  at  least  the  following  tools  of  a 

very  substantial  quality. 
(See  Figure  2.) 
One  ruling  pen. 
One  steel  spring  bow 
pencil. 

One  steel  spring  bow 
pen. 

One  plane  divider. 
Compasses  with   fixed 
needle    point,    pen    and 
pencil  points. 

Box  of  leads. 

The  other  instruments  sometimes  found  in  the  drawing  set 
are  very  convenient  but  not  absolutely  necessary  for  your  early 
work. 


Figure  2. 


292 

THE  DRAWING  BOARD. 

A  drawing  board  is  simply  a  plain,  smooth  board  with  at 
least  one  absolutely  straight  edge.  It  should  be  made  of  some 
kind  of  soft  wood  which  will  easily  receive  the  thumb  tacks; 
either  white  pine  or  basswood  is  generally  used. 

The  size  is  not  material,  although  a  board  about  sixteen 
or  eighteen  inches  wide  by  twenty-two  or  twenty-four  inches 
long  will  be  found  satisfactory  for  school  use.  (See  Figure  3.) 


TRIANGLES, 

You  should  have  two  triangles,  one  8-inch  45-degree  (See 
Figure  4)  and  one  8-inch  30x60-degree  (See  Figure  5).  The 
triangles  are  to  be  used  (resting  on  the  top  edge  of  the  T-square, 
properly  held)  to  draw  all  vertical  and  oblique  lines.  Triangles 
are  made  of  various  kinds  of  material,  but  the  transparent  ones 
will  give  best  satisfaction. 


Figure  4. 


Figure  5. 


. 


THE  T-SQUARE. 


The  purpose  of  the  T-square  (which  must  have  a  perfectly 
straight  blade)  is  to  draw  parallel  horizontal  lines;  it  should 
never  be  used  to  draw  vertical  lines.  Its  position  is  always  against 


293 

the  lefthand  edge  of  the  board;  it  is  not  to  be  shifted  about 
from  one  edge  to  another.  The  top  edge  of  the  square  is  to  serve 
as  a  straight  edge  in  ruling  lines;  the  bottom  edge  is  not  to  be 
used.  (See  Figure  6.) 


Figure  6. 


RULER  OR  SCALE. 

The  ruler,  or  scale  as  it  is  usually  called,  is  a  triangular  box- 
wood rule  with  the  various  fractional  parts  of  an  inch  accurately 
marked.  (See  Figure  7.)  An  ordinary  flat  ruler  may  be  used, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  make  absolutely  accurate  measurements  with 
such  a  scale.  You  will  observe  that  the  inch  marks  do  not  con- 
tinue to  the  extreme  ends  of  the  triangular  scale;  this  is  done  to 
make  sure  that  if  the  ends  are  damaged  accurate  measurements 
will  not  be  hindered.  The  scale  is  to  be  used  only  in  making 
measurements ;  it  should  never  be  used  in  ruling  lines. 


U\AA.\A.\A\\\.\,\.^\\\.\A\A>\A.\A.\.\\AAA\.\AA\A.\.\\t\A,\AAA  \\.\AA\. \AA\V\A.\\.\A.\\ 

Figure  7. 


THE  IRREGULAR  CURVE. 

The  irregular  curve  is  used  in  drawing  designs 
which  employ  curves  that  cannot  be  laid  out  with 
the  compass.  (See  Figure  8.)  It  is  not  absolutely 
necessary,  particularly  in  your  early  work,  but  it 
will  be  a  great  help  in  later  work  when  you  wish  to 
lay  out  graceful  designs. 


Figure  8. 


294 

OTHER  ARTICLES  NEEDED. 

One-half  dozen  thumb  tacks  with  which  to  fasten  the  drawing 
paper  to  the  board. 

One  rubber  eraser. 

One  bottle  of  waterproof  black  drawing  ink. 
One  penholder  and  fine  pen-point. 
Supply  of  drawing  paper. 

One  drawing  pencil.  For  this  work  you  will  need  to  use  a  very 
hard  lead  pencil;  about  No.  4H  will  be  satisfactory.  The  pencil 
must  be  kept  sharp ;  some  draftsmen  sharpen  their  pencils  on  both 
ends,  making  one  point  very  slender  and  round  while  the  other 
point  is  sharpened  chisel  shape;  some  prefer  to  have  two  pencils 
for  this  purpose.  The  round  point  is  used  in  locating  points  and 
making  measurements;  the  chisel  point  is  used  in  drawing  lines. 
You  should  have  a  small  piece  of  fine  sand-paper  upon  which  to  rub 
the  pencil  point  in  keeping  it  very  keen. 

PRACTICE  EXERCISE. 

Cut  your  drawing  paper  to  some  convenient  size;  it  is  not 
material  what  size  you  use,  but  it  would  be  well  to  decide  upon  the 
size  you  expect  to  make  your  plates  or  drawings  and  have  them 
all  uniform  in  size  and  shape;  this  will  make  your  work  neat  and 
systematic,  and  will  aid  you  considerably  in  taking  care  of 
the  drawings  when  you  have  a  number  of  them  completed.  The 
paper  is  to  be  fastened  onto  the  drawing  board  with  thumb  tacks. 
To  do  this  fasten  one  of  the  upper  corners  of  the  paper  by  push- 
ing the  thumb  tack  through  it  into  the  board,  then  hold  the 
T-square  with  the  head  firmly  against  the  lefthand  edge  of  the 
drawing  board  and  set  the  paper  exactly  straight  with  the  upper 
edge  of  the  T-square;  insert  thumb  tacks  at  each  corner  to  hold 
the  paper  perfectly  smooth;  push  the  tacks  in  such  a  position 
that  the  tendency  is  to  tighten  the  paper  without  crimping  it. 

With  your  scale  and  round-pointed  lead  pencil  lay  out  small 
dots  one-half  inch  apart  from  bottom  to  top  along  the  lefthand 
edge  of  your  paper;  hold  the  T-square  in  its  proper  position  and 
rule  a  horizontal  line  across  the  paper  through  each  of  these 
points.  These  lines  should  be  exactly  parallel. 

Lay  out  similar  dots  on  the  top  line;  hold  your  T-square  in 
its  proper  position,  and  with  one  of  your  triangles  resting  exact- 
ly upon  the  upper  edge  of  the  T-square,  rule  a  vertical  line 
through  each  of  these  points.  It  will  require  a  little  care  to  hold 


295 

the  T-square  and  triangle  in  their  proper  positions  while  draw- 
ing vertical  lines.  In  slipping  the  triangle  from  one  point  to  an- 
other, be  very  careful  not  to  allow  the  square  to  get  out  of  posi- 
tion. 

If  these  lines  are  properly  drawn  your  paper  will  be  laid  out  in 
half -inch  squares;  you  might  use  the  other  edge  of  your  triangles 
and  draw  oblique  lines. 

MARGINAL  OR  BORDER  LINES. 

Drawing  sheets  are  usually  laid  out  with  a  very  heavy  line 
ruled  around  the  edge,  thus  leaving  a  margin  entirely  around  the 
drawing.  You  can  decide  about  the  width  of  your  margins  when 
you  are  determining  the  size  and  shape  of  your  sheets. 

INKING. 

After  drawings  are  laid  out  with  the  lead  pencil,  they  are 
inked  to  make  them  clear  and  permanent.  The  inking  is  done 
with  the  ruling  pen,  found  in  the  set  of  drawing  instruments.  Do 
not  dip  this  pen  into  the  ink,  but  with  your  steel  pen  or  the  quill 
which  is  in  the  cork  of  the  ink  bottle  put  a  little  ink  between  the 
nibs  of  the  ruling  pen.  The  width  of  the  line  made  by  the  ruling 
pen  can  be  changed  by  loosening  or  tightening  the  small  set- 
screw  on  the  side  of  the  pen.  Always  test  the  pen  on  a  scrap  of 
drawing  paper  or  on  the  margin  which  is  to  be  cut  off  of  your 
drawing.  Use  the  pen  in  much  the  same  manner  in  which  you 
used  the  pencil  in  ruling  the  lines;  however,  you  must  be  careful 
not  to  allow  ink  to  get  on  the  edge  of  the  triangle  or  T-square.  The 
only  way  to  become  skillful  at  this  process  is  by  careful  practice. 

Be  sure  to  clean  your  pen  thoroughly  before  laying  it  away. 

LETTERING. 

There  is  nothing  which  adds  to  the  general  appearance  of  a 
drawing  so  much  as  neat,  attractive  lettering.  This  does  not 
mean  that  fancy  and  elaborate  decorative  lettering  is  advised, 
but  that  on  all  drawings  the  lettering  should  be  clear  and  easily 
read;  the  style  and  spacing  of  letters  should  be  uniform.  The 
matter  of  slant  is  not  important  so  long  as  it  does  not  vary  in  the 
same  drawing. 

For  all  practical  purposes  lettering  must  be  speedily  as  well 
as  neatly  done,  so  it  is  neeessary  to  develop  skill  in  making  let- 


296 

ters  freehand.  Rule  lines  to  guide  you  in  the  height  of  the  letters, 
but  train  your  eye  and  hand  to  space  and  execute  the  letters  and 
figures  without  any  further  guide.  Become  familiar  with  some 
one  form  and  style  of  letter  and  practice  it  until  you  can  make 
that  alphabet  speedily  and  well.  (See  Figure  9.) 

The  following  types  are  given  to  assist  you  in  acquiring 
form;  you  should  practice  them  over  and  over.  You  should  fre- 
quently lay  out  and  execute  complete  letter  sheets  the  same  size 
and  style  as  your  other  drawing  plates. 


ABCPEFGHIJKLMNOPQR 
STUVWXYZS 

abcdefgh  ijklmnopqrsiu  vwxyz 
I23456789O 


HIDDEN  PART 


LINE  OF  OBJECT 


DIMENSION 


BORDER  LINE 


Figure  9. 

PROBLEMS  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  following  problems  in  construction  will  give  you  prac- 
tice with  the  drawing  instruments  and  will  help  you  to  under- 
stand some  of  the  most  important  principles  of  mechanical  draw- 
ing. The  directions  for  the  drawing  are  given  in  such  a  way  as 
to  allow  you  to  think  for  yourself;  the  supplementary  problems 
should  also  be  worked  out  if  time  will  permit,  for  they  are  in- 
tended to  give  further  application  of  the  principles  set  forth  in 
the  regular  problems. 

WORKING  DRAWINGS. 

The  matter  of  how  working  drawings  are  prepared  for  the 
shop  is  clearly  explained  in  plate  V.  You  should  give  this  plate 


297 

careful  study,  for  it  sets  forth  the  principles  upon  which  all  the 
working  drawings  of  this  book  are  made. 

For  practice  in  this  part  of  your  drawing  work  use  the  shop 
projects,  and  after  studying  the  drawings  furnished,  together 
with  the  suggestions,  prepare  working  drawings  of  your  own,  em- 
ploying original  ideas  as  much  as  you  can  without  violating  any 
principles  of  construction.  You  will  have  to  discuss  these  points 
with  your  teacher. 


PROBLEMS 

(See  Plate  I.,  Page  299.) 

Problem  No.  1 — To  Bi-Sect  a  Given  Line. 

Let  line  AB  be  the  given  line.  With  a  pencil  compass  set  at 
a  distance  greater  than  one-half  the  length  of  line  AB,  using  A 
as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  below  and  one  above  the  line ;  using  B  as 
a  center,  with  the  same  radius,  draw  arcs  above  and  below  the 
line,  intersecting  in  points  C  and  D  respectively.  Rule  a  line  to 
connect  points  C  and  D.  Point  O,  where  this  line  intersects  line 
AB,  will  be  the  point  of  bi-section  (half  way  between  points  A 
and  B). 

In  shop  practice  a  line  is  usually  bi-sected  by  measurements 
made  with  the  scale,  or  dividers. 


298 

Problem  No.  2 — To  Erect  a  Line  Perpendicular  to  a  Given  Line  at 
a  Given  Point. 

Let  AB  be  the  given  line  and  P  a  point  within  the  line  to 
which  the  perpendicular  is  to  be  erected.  With  the  compasses 
set  at  any  convenient  radius,  using  P  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc 
cutting  the  line  AB  on  each  side  of  point  P.  Mark  these  points 
C  and  D  respectively.  With  the  compasses  set  at  any  radius  some- 
what greater  than  PD,  using  D  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  above  the 
line  AB;  with  the  same  radius,  using  C  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc 
intersecting  the  first  arc.  Rule  a  line  E  to  P.  This  is  the  required 
perpendicular. 

In  shop  practice  this  perpendicular  would  be  erected  by  plac- 
ing a  triangle  on  the  T-square  and  drawing  the  perpendicular  line 
through  the  required  point. 

Problem  No.  3 — From  a  Given  Point  Outside  a  Line  to  Drop  a 
Perpendicular  to  the  Line. 

Let  AB  be  the  given  line  and  P  the  point  outside  the  line. 
With  the  compasses  set  at  any  convenient  radius,  using  P  as  a 
center,  draw  an  arc  cutting  the  line  AB  at  points  C  and  D.  With 
the  compass  set  at  any  convenient  radius  greater  than  one-half 
of  CD,  using  D  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  above  the  line  AB.  Using 
C  as  a  center,  with  the  same  radius,  draw  another  arc,  intersect- 
ing the  first  arc  at  point  E.  Rule  a  line  passing  through  points 
P  and  E  to  the  line  AB.  This  will  be  the  required  perpendicular. 

In  shop  practice  this  perpendicular  would  be  drawn  by  the 
use  of  a  triangle  resting  on  the  T-square. 

Problem  No.  4 — Through  a  Given  Point  to  Draw  a  Line  Parallel 
to  a  Given  Line. 

Let  AB  be  the  given  line  and  P  the  given  point.  With  P  as 
a  center  and  the  compasses  set  at  any  convenient  radius  great 
enough  to  cut  the  line  AB,  draw  an  arc  cutting  line  AB  at  point 
Q.  With  Q  as  a  center,  and  the  same  radius,  draw  an  arc  cutting 
the  line  AB  at  R  (it  will  pass  through  the  point  P) .  Set  the  com- 
passes with  a  radius  equal  to  RP,  using  Q  as  a  center,  draw  an 
arc  cutting  the  first  arc  at  point  S.  Rule  a  line  through  points 
P  and  S.  This  is  the  required  line. 

In  shop  practice  this  parallel  line,  if  horizontal,  would  be 
drawn  with  the  T-square;  if  vertical,  with  the  triangle  resting 
on  the  T-square. 


299 


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Plate   I. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  PROBLEMS. 


Problem  A — To  Erect  a  Perpendicular  and  the  End  of  a  Given  Line. 

Draw  a  line  AB.  Assume  a  point  P,  any  convenient  position  outside  this 
line.  With  P  as  a  center,  and  a  radius  equal  the  distance  from  P  to  B,  draw 
a  circle  passing  through  B  and  cutting  the  line  AB  at  the  point  C.  Draw  a 
line  from  C  to  P  and  extend  it  to  intersect  the  circumference  at  F.  Draw  the 
line  FB.  This  will  be  the  required  perpendicular  at  the  end  of  the  line. 

In  regular  shop  practice  the  perpendicular  at  the  end  of  the  line  will  be 
drawn  with  the  triangle. 

Problem  B— To  Bi-Sect  Any  Given  Arc. 

With  the  compasses  draw  any  arc  AB.  Connect  points  A  and  B  with  a 
straight  line.  This  straight  line  is  called  a  chord.  Bi-sect  this  chord  with  a 
perpendicular  line  (Problem  1).  This  perpendicular  line  will  also  bi-sect 
the  arc. 

Problem  C — (Test  Problem). 

With  your  T-square  draw  a  horizontal  line  AB.  From  any  point  P  in 
this  line  erect  a  perpendicular  with  one  of  the  triangles.  Test  the  accuracy 
of  this  perpendicular  by  the  method  given  in  Problem  2. 

Problem  D — (Test  Problem). 

With  your  T-square  draw  two  parallel  horizontal  lines  and  with  your 
triangle  draw  two  vertical  parallel  lines.  Test  both  pairs  of  lines  (Problem  4) 
to  determine  whether  or  not  they  are  accurate. 


300 

Problem  No.  5 — To  Divide  a  Given  Line  Into  Any  Number  of 
Equal  Parts. 

Let  AB  be  the  given  line,  which,  for  illustration,  we  will  di- 
vide into  six  equal  parts.  Draw  the  line  AH  at  any  convenient 
angle  to  line  AB.  Lay  off  six  equal  parts  on  line  AH.  This  may 
be  done  by  setting  the  dividers  at  any  convenient  distance  and 
beginning  at  A  mark  off  the  required  number  of  parts.  Letter 
these  points  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H;  from  H  draw  the  line  HB.  From 
the  other  points  in  line  AH  draw  lines  parallel  to  line  HB,  cutting 
line  AB ;  letter  the  points  of  intersection  M,  L,  K,  J,  I.  These  lines 
will  divide  AB  into  the  required  six  equal  parts. 

In  shop  practice  these  parallel  lines  would  be  drawn  by  the 
use  of  triangles. 

Problem  No.  6— To  Bi-Sect  Any  Angle. 

Let  ABC  be  the  given  angle.  With  B  as  a  center,  at  any  con- 
venient radius  draw  an  arc  cutting  AB  and  CB  and  letter  these 
points  D  and  E  respectively.  With  any  convenient  radius  greater 
than  one-half  of  DE,  using  D  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc.  With  the 
same  radius,  using  E  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  intersecting  the 
first.  Letter  this  point  of  intersection  F.  Draw  a  line  connecting 
points  F  and  B.  This  is  the  required  bi-section ;  that  is,  it  divides 
the  angle  into  two  equal  parts. 

Problem  No.  7 — To  Construct  a  Triangle  Having  Its  Three  Sides 
Given. 

Let  lines  AB,  CD  and  EF,  respectively,  be  the  given  sides 
with  which  to  construct  a  triangle.  Draw  a  line  OP  equal  to  the 
line  AB.  Set  the  compasses  to  a  radius  equal  to  CD;  using  point 
P  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  above  the  line  OP.  Set  the  compasses 
to  a  radius  equal  the  line  EF.  Using  the  point  0  as  a  center,  de- 
scribe an  arc,  cutting  the  first  arc  at  point  Q.  Connect  point  Q 
to  points  O  and  P.  This  will  be  the  required  triangle. 

Problem  No.  8 — To  Transfer  An  Angle. 

Let  ABC  be  the  given  angle.  Draw  any  line  EF.  On  the 
given  angle,  using  B  as  a  center,  and  any  radius,  draw  an  arc 
cutting  the  sides  of  the  angle  at  M  and  N.  With  the  same  radius, 
using  E  as  a  center,  draw  an  indefinite  arc,  cutting  the  line  EF  at 
P.  Now  on  the  given  angle  set  the  compasses  to  a  radius  equal 
NM.  Using  P  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  cutting  the  first  indefinite 
arc  at  point  Q.  Draw  the  line  ED  through  the  point  Q.  DEF 
will  be  the  required  transferred  angle. 


301 


PROBLEM  5 


\-'\     \      \ 

\  \  \  \  N 

\      \      \     \      \      \ 
/     J     K     L     M     B 


PROBLEM  6 
"A 


PROBLEM  7 
B 


0 


PROBLEM  8 


Plate  II. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  PROBLEMS. 


Problem  E — A  Circle  Contains  360  Degrees. 

Draw  any  circle  and  with  a  T-square  draw  a  horizontal  diameter  passing 
through  point  O,  the  center.  At  point  O  draw  a  vertical  diameter.  These 
four  angles  will  be  right  angles.  How  many  degrees  will  each  contain? 

Problem  F— Draw  a  Right  Angle  (With  the  T-Square  and  Triangle). 

Bi-sect  this  angle  by  method  in  Problem  6.  How  many  degrees  in  each 
of  the  small  angles?  This  angle  is  called  a  half -pitch  cut  (Chapter  II,  Par. 
24.  Chapter  V,  Par.  75). 

Problem  G — Draw  a  Circle  With  Point  O  as  the  Center. 

Around  point  O  how  many  30-degree  angles  can  be  constructed?  Draw 
them.  How  many  45-degree  angles?  Draw  another  circle  and  divide  it  into 
45-degree  angles. 

Problem  H — Draw  an  Equilateral  Triangle,  One  Side  Being  Given. 

Draw  the  line  AB  the  length  of  the  given  side.  With  the  compasses  set 
to  the  radius  AB,  using  A  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc.  With  the  same  radius, 
using  B  as  the  center,  draw  an  arc  intersecting  the  first  arc.  Letter  this 
point  of  intersection  C.  Join  C  with  A  and  with  B.  This  will  be  the  desired 
equilateral  triangle. 


302 

Problem  No.  9 — To  Construct  a  Triangle  Having  Given  One  Side 
and  the  Two  Adjacent  Angles. 

Let  line  AB  be  the  given  side,  angle  CDE  and  FHG  the  two 
adjacent  angles.  Draw  line'XY  equal  to  AB.  Using  X  for  the 
vertex,  draw  the  angle  KXL  equal  to  the  angle  CDE.  Using  Y 
for  the  vertex,  draw  the  angle  MYN  equal  the  angle  FHG  (this 
should  be  done  by  the  method  of  transferring  angles  already  giv- 
en). Produce  the  sides  of  the  angles  thus  constructed  until  they 
meet  at  point  Z.  ZXY  will  be  the  required  triangle. 

Problem  No.  10 — To  Inscribe  a  Circle  in  a  Given  Triangle. 

Let  ABC  be  the  given  triangle.  In  order  to  inscribe  the  cir- 
cle it  will  be  necessary  to  find  the  center.  To  do  this  bi-sect  any 
two  angles  (by  the  process  already  learned).  Bi-sect  the  angle 
ABC  with  the  line  HB.  Bi-sect  the  angle  ACB  with  the  line  GC. 
These  bi-sectors  will  intersect  at  the  point  K.  Using  K  as  a  cen- 
ter and  a  radius  equal  to  the  perpendicular  distance  to  any  side 
of  the  triangle,  draw  the  required  inscribed  circle. 

Problem  No.  11 — To  Circumscribe  a  Circle  About  a  Given  Tri- 
angle, Or  to  Describe  An  Arc  Or  Circumference  Through 
Three  Given  Points  Not  in  the  Same  Straight  Line. 

Let  ABC  be  the  vertices  of  the  triangle  (three  points  not  in 
a  straight  line).  Bi-sect  any  two  sides  of  the  triangle  (by  the 
process  already  learned).  Side  AB  will  be  bi-sected  by  the  line 
FG ;  side  BC  by  the  line  DE.  Produce  these  perpendicular  bi-sectors 
until  they  intersect  at  point  K.  Point  K  is  the  center  of  the  re- 
quired circle.  Using  K  as  a  center,  with  a  radius  equal  to  the 
distance  AK,  draw  the  required  circle  through  A,  B  and  C. 

Problem  No.  12 — To  Construct  an  Equilateral  Triangle  Having 
the  Altitude  Given. 

Let  line  AB  be  the  given  altitude.  Through  the  extremities 
of  this  line  draw  parallel  lines,  CD  and  GH  perpendicular  to  line 
AB.  With  A  as  a  center,  and  any  convenient  radius,  draw  the 
semi-circle  CD.  With  C  and  D  as  centers,  using  the  same  radius, 
draw  arcs,  cutting  the  semi-circle  at  points  E  and  F,  respectively. 
Draw  AE  and  AF;  produce  them  to  cut  the  line  GH.  AGH  is  the 
required  equilateral  triangle. 


303 


PROBLEM  9 


Y . 


PROBLEM  10 


\H 


PROBLEM  II 


PROBLEM  12 


Plate  III. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  PROBLEMS. 

Problem  I— The  Sum  of  the  Three  Angles  of  Any  Triangle  Is  Equal  to  180 
Degrees  (the  Total  Angles  on  One  Side  of  a  Straight  Line),  Having  Two 
Angles  Given,  to  Find  the  Third  Angle  of  Any  Triangle. 

Let  MNO  be  one  of  the  angles,  QRS  the  second,  to  find  the  third  angle 
of  the  triangle;  draw  a  straight  line  AB.  At  any  point  P  in  this  line  transfer 
the  angle  MNO,  making  the  vertex  fall  on  P.  Let  the  line  AP  form  one  side 
of  the  angle.  In  like  manner  transfer  the  angle  QRS,  letting  the  vertex  R 
fall  on  point  P;  letting  PB  form  one  side  of  the  angle.  The  remaining 
angle  would  be  the  required  angle. 

Problem  J — To  Construct  a  Triangle  Having  Two  Sides  and  the  Included  Angle 
Given. 

Let  MN  and  PQ  be  the  two  sides,  and  RST  the  given  angle.  Draw  the 
line  AB  equal  to  the  side  PQ;  transfer  the  angle  RST  making  its  vertex  on 
point  B.  Prolong  the  side  of  the  angle  the  length  of  the  side  MN,  mark  this 
point  C;  connect  C  with  A.  This  will  be  the  required  triangle. 

Problem  K— 

(Test  problem  in  actual  measurement).  To  find  the  largest  circle  that 
can  be  drawn  in  an  equilateral  triangle  with  one  side  given. 

Draw  the  equilateral  triangle  of  given  size  (Problem  7);  inscribe  the 
circle  (Problem  10).  Measure  the  diameter  with  the  scale. 

Problem  L — To  Inscribe  a  Square  in  a  Given  Circle. 

In  the  given  circle  draw  two  diameters  at  right  angles  to  each  other  (T 
square  and  triangles).  Connect  the  points  where  these  diameters  cut  the  cir- 
cumference; this  rectangle  will  be  the  required  square. 

By  drawing  and  actual  measurements  find  the  largest  square  that  can  be 
cut  from  a  circular  board  9  inches  in  diameter. 


304 

Problem  13 — To  Inscribe  a  Regular  Hexagon  in  a  Given  Circle. 

With  A  as  a  center,  draw  any  circle.  With  the  T-square  draw 
the  diameter  of  the  given  circle,  cutting  the  circumference  in  points 
F  and  C.  With  the  compasses  set  to  the  same  radius  with  which 
the  circle  was  drawn,  using  C  as  a  center,  draw  arcs  B  and  D  above 
and  below  the  diameter,  respectively.  With  F  as  the  center,  and 
the  same  radius,  draw  arcs  G  and  E.  Connect  these  six  points  with 
straight  lines,  thus  forming  the  required  hexagon. 

Problem  14 — To  Construct  an  Octagon  in  a  Given  Square. 

Let  ABCD  be  the  given  square..  Draw  the  diagonals  AD  and 
BC  intersecting  at  point  E.  With  the  compasses  set  to  a  radius 
equal  to  DE  (one-half  the  diagonal),  using  D  as  a  center,  draw  an 
arc  intersecting  the  square  at  points  G  and  F.  Using  B  as  a  cen- 
ter, and  the  same  radius,  draw  an  arc  intersecting  the  square  at 
points  H  and  I;  using  A  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  intersecting  at 
J  and  K.  Using  C  as  a  center,  draw  an  arc  intersecting  at  L  and 
M.  Draw  lines  from  M  to  I,  from  G  to  J,  from  H  to  L  and  K  to 

F,  thus  forming  the  required  octagon. 

Problem  No.  15 — To  Draw  an  Ellipse  When  the  Two  Axes  (Di- 
ameters) Are  Given. 

Draw  the  major  axis  AC;  draw  the  minor  axis  BD  perpen- 
dicular to  AC  at  its  middle  point.  Make  BO  equal  to  OD.  With 
O  as  the  center  and  a  radius  equal  to  OC,  draw  the  circle  A,  E,  F, 

G,  P,  C.    With  O  as  a  center  and  a  radius  equal  to  OB,  draw  the 
circle  IKNRT.   Draw  a  number  of  radii  from  0,  cutting  both  the  cir- 
cumferences.    These  radii  may  be  drawn  with  the  use  of  the  60 
and  45-degree  triangles.     From  the  point  where  these  radii  in- 
tersect the  inner  circle  draw  horizontal  lines  (with  the  T-square) . 
From  the  point  where  these  radii  intersect  the  larger  circle  draw 
vertical  lines  (with  the  triangle).   Where  these  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal lines  intersect  will  be  points  in  the  required  ellipse.     Lo- 
cate a  number  of  such  points.    Usually  about  four  or  five  will  be 
sufficient  in  each  quarter  of  the  circle.     Draw  a  freehand  curve 
touching  all  these  points. 

Problem  16 — To  Construct  an  Ellipse  With  the  Use  of  a  Trammel. 
Draw  the  major  and  the  minor  axis  as  explained  in  Problem 
15,  letting  AC  be  the  major  axis  and  BD  the  minor  axis.  Prepare 
a  strip  of  cardboard,  or  paper,  having  a  straight  edge,  and  mark 
off  EG  equal  to  one-half  the  major  axis  and  FG  equal  to  one-half 
the  minor  axis.  Place  this  slip  of  paper  in  a  number  of  positions, 
keeping  point  E  on  the  minor  axis  and  F  on  the  major  axis.  Point 
G  will  thus  locate  a  number  of  points  in  the  desired  ellipse.  Con- 
nect these  points  by  means  of  a  freehand  curve. 


305 


PROBLEM  13 


PROBLEM  14- 


PROBLEM  15 


PROBLEM  16 


V 


Plate  IV. 

Problem  M—          SUPPLEMENTARY  PROBLEMS. 

To  draw  a  line  tangent  to  a  circle  at  a  given  point  on  the  circumference. 

With  O  as  a  center  and  any  radius  draw  a  circle;  let  P  be  the  given  point 
on  the  circumference.     Join  point  P  with  the  center  O;  through  point  P  draw 
a  line  AP  perpendicular  to  OP.    This  is  the  required  tangent. 
Problem  N — 

To  draw  angles  of  given  number  of  degrees  by  use  of  the  triangles. 

Draw  a  semi-circle  and  by  using  the  45-degree  and  the  30-degree  trian- 
gles divide  it  into  angles  of  15  degrees.     Use  your  triangles  in  various  com- 
binations and  draw  as  many  different  angles  as  you  can. 
Problem  0 — 

Draw  a  right  angle  triangle  with  the  altitude  equal  to  the  base;  this 
forms  what  is  known  as  a  half-pitch  angle,  or  cut-in  rafter  or  brace  construc- 
tion (Chapter  II,  Paragraph  24,  and  Chapter  V,  Paragraph  75). 

Draw  a  right  angle  triangle  with  the  altitude  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the 
base;  this  forms  the  third  pitch  cut  (Chapter  II,  Paragraph  25,  and  Chapter 
V,  Paragraph  76). 

Draw  a  right  angle  triangle  with  the  altitude  equal  to  one-half  of  the 
base;  this  forms  the  quarter-pitch  cut  (Chapter  II,  Paragraph  26,  and  Chap- 
ter V,  Paragraph  77). 
Problem  P— 

Shop  method  of  drawing  an  ellipse  (with  a  string)  when  the  two  diam- 
eters are  given. 

Draw  the  longer  diameter  AB,  at  its  middle  point  O  draw  the  shorter 
diameter  CD  perpendicular  to  AB;  make  OC  equal  to  OD.  (The  lines  must 
cross  at  the  middle  point  in  each.) 

With  the  compasses  set  to  a  radius  equal  to  OA,  using  C  as  a  center, 
drp'/v  arcs  cutting  AB  in  points  X  and  Y. 

Drive  a  small  brad  in  point  X,  and  another  in  point  Y,  another  might  be 
temporarily  driven  in  point  C;  tie  a  string  around  the  three  brads;  remove 
the  brad  from  point  C,  insert  the  point  of  a  lead  pencil  and  swing  it  around, 
thus  drawing  the  required  ellipse. 


306 
EXPLANATION  OF  PROJECTION  DRAWING. 

You  have  already  been  told  that  in  shop  drawings  we  use 
three  views,  the  plan  which  represents  the  appearance  of  the  ob- 
ject as  seen  from  above;  the  front  elevation,  its  appearance  as 
seen  from  straight  in  front;  and  the  end  elevation,  as  seen  from 
the  right  end. 

At  first  it  may  seem  a  little  difficult  to  understand  these  views. 
A  careful  study  of  Plate  V  will  make  the  matter  clear.  In  the 
upper  half  of  this  plate  you  will  see  a  perspective  drawing  of  a 
bracket  shelf,  represented  as  though  it  were  surrounded  by  a  glass 
box.  On  the  top  side,  marked  plan,  you  will  see  a  drawing  repre- 
senting the  portion  of  the  bracket  shelf  which  would  appear  on 
this  piece  of  glass,  if  the  parts  directly  below  were  projected  upon 
it;  the  dotted  lines  represent  the  underneath  parts.  On  the  front 
side,  marked  front  elevation,  you  will  see  a  representation  of  the 
front  of  the  bracket  shelf  projected.  On  the  end,  marked  end  ele- 
vation, there  is  a  representation  of  the  end  of  the  bracket  shelf 
projected. 

If  the  top  portion  of  the  imaginary  glass  box  should  be  raised, 
as  though  it  were  hinged  on  the  line  AB,  and  the  end  portion  were 
opened  as  though  it  were  hinged  on  the  line  BD,  the  three  draw- 
ings would  stand  in  the  positions  shown  on  the  lower  half  of  this 
plate.  This  explains  how  the  three  regular  views  of  any  article 
are  made,  and  just  how  they  should  be  arranged  on  the  paper. 

If  the  left  end  of  an  article  is  entirely  different  to  the  right, 
another  end  elevation  would  be  given  showing  the  detail  of  the 
left  end.  If  the  second  end  is  not  shown  it  is  always  understood 
to  be  identical  with  the  end  elevation  which  is  shown. 

For  further  practice  in  mechanical  drawing,  you  should  make 
practical  application  of  all  of  the  principles  which  you  have  learned, 
by  constructing  regular  three-view  drawings  of  the  articles  which 
you  are  to  make  in  the  shop.  Further  problems  dealing  with  the 
subject  of  shop  drawings  are  not  given  here,  because  any  of  the 
lessons  presented  throughout  the  text  may  be  used  as  models  and 
types,  for  development  of  as  many  plates  dealing  with  shop  prob- 
lems as  the  time  of  the  class  and  the  inclination  of  the  teacher  may 
direct. 


307 


A' 


PLAN 


B' 


fWNT  ELEVATION 


EWELEMTIOH 


C 


Plate  V. 


308 


CHAPTER  II 
TOOL  PROCESSES 

SQUARING  STOCK. 

Paragraph  1.  In  undertaking  any  piece  of  work  the  very 
first  thing  to  do  is  to  square  the  stock,  that  is,  prepare  a  working 
face,  a  working  edge  an/1  a  working  end,  from  which  measure- 
ments are  to  be  taken. 

PREPARING  A  WORKING  FACE. 

Paragraph  2.  A  working  face  is  to  be  planed  perfectly 
smooth  and  straight.  This  process  is  called  surfacing.  To  do 
this,  fasten  the  board  in  the  tail  vise  on  your  bench.  See  that 

your  plane  is  sharp  and 
properly  adjusted.  (Chap- 
ter VI.)  Start  your  cut 
with  the  plane  in  the  posi- 
tion shown  in  Figure  11. 
Notice  that  the  left  hand 
rests  firmly  upon  the  knob 
of  the  plane,  where  some 
pressure  must  be  used  to 
keep  the  sole  of  the  plane 
level  with  the  surface  of 
board.  With  the  right 
hand  push  the  plane  for- 
ii.  ward,  causing  it  to  take  a 

thin,    even    shaving   as    it 
comes  to  the  position  shown 

in  Figure  12.  In  this  posi- 
tion the  plane  sole  is  resting 
flat  on  the  surface  of  the 
board.  The  plane  should 
continue  in  a  forward  mo- 
tion until  the  shaving  has 
been  taken  the  full  length 
of  the  board,  then  the  plane 
will  be  in  the  position 
shown  in  Figure  13.  In 
this  position  the  downward 
pressure  should  be  on  the 
right  hand  so  that  the  sole  Figure  12. 


309 


Figure  13. 


of  the  plane  will  continue 
to  lie  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  board.  If  the  for- 
ward end  of  the  plane  is 
allowed  to  tilt  downward 
at  the  finish  of  the  stroke, 
a  thicker  shaving  will  be 
taken  off  at  the  end,  thus 
causing  the  board  to  be  un- 
level.  In  surfacing  a  wide 
board  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  plane  to  pass  over 
several  times  in  order  to 
smooth  the  entire  surface. 


TESTING  THE  SURFACE  WITH  A  SQUARE. 


Paragraph  3.  With  your 
try-square  blade  (which  is 
perfectly  straight)  held  irt 
the  position  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 14,  you  may  test  the 
surface  to  make  sure  that 
it  is  even.  Push  the  square 
along  the  entire  surface  of 
the  board  carefully,  watch- 
ing to  see  that  it  fits  closely 
upon  the  surface  all  the 
way  across  and  that  light 
cannot  shine  under  it  at 
any  point.  When  the  edge 
of  the  square  blade  will 

touch  every  point  on  the  surface  of  the  board  as  it  passes,  the 
working  face  is  prepared.  Mark  this  face  with  the  letter  "X," 
for  you  will  want  to  refer  to  it  from  time  to  time  in  handling  this 
piece  of  material. 


Figure  14. 


310 


Figure  15. 


PREPARING  A  WORKING  EDGE. 

Paragraph    4.    After  the  working  face  is  completed  the  next 

step  in  squaring  stock  is  to  prepare  a  working  edge.    This  is  done 

by  planing  one  edge  at  a  perfect  right  angle  to  the  working  face. 

To  do  this  place  the  ma- 
terial in  the  vise  with  the 
edge  up,  as  indicated  in 
Figure  15;  with  the  long 
plane  (a  jack-plane  or  a 
jointer)  plane  the  edge  the 
entire  length  of  the  board. 
In  starting  and  finishing 
the  cut  at  each  end  be  care- 
ful to  hold  the  plane  so  it 
will  be  level  with  the  edge 
of  the  board,  as  already 
shown  in  Figures  11  and 
13.  In  planing  a  working 

edge  be  careful  to  hold  your  plane  exactly  level,  that  is,  it  must 

not  be  tilted  to  either  side.     Let  the  entire  sole  of  the  plane  rest 

on  the  edge  of  the  board.    Test  the 

edge  with  the  try-square,  as  shown 

in  Figure  16,  holding  the  handle  of 

the  try-square  firmly   against   the 

working  face.     Be   sure   to   turn 

your  work  toward  the  light  so  you 

can  determine  accurately  whether 

the  square  exactly  fits  the  edge. 

In  testing  with  the  square,   some 

mechanics  prefer  to  hold  the  ma- 
terial on  the  level  with  the  eye,  as 

shown  in  Figure  17.  In  this  posi- 
tion one  can  see  whether  light 

shines  under  the  square  blade  at 

any  point  as   it   is   being   pushed 

along.     Push  the  square  from  one 

end  to  the  other  so  as  to  test  the 

edge    of   the    material    its    entire 

length.    If  it  does  not  perfectly  fit  the  square,  plane  down  the  high 

edge  until  it  does. 


Figure  16. 


311 


Also  test  the  edges  by 
sight,  as  shown  in  Figure 
17,  making  sure  that  it  is 
perfectly  straight  as  well 
as  square.  You  should  train 
your  eye  so  you  will  be  able 
to  determine  accurately 
when  an  edge  is  straight, 
ability  to  judge  lines,  an- 
gles and  measurements  by 
sight  is  a  great  advantage 
Figure  17.  to  a  mechanic.  You  may 

also  test  it  with  a  long  steel 

square,   as   shown   in   Figure 

18.     The   edge   of  the   large 

steel     square     is     a    perfect 

straight  line,  it  can  therefore 

be  used  to  test  the  accuracy 

of  your  planing.      When  you 

have  made  sure  that  the  edge 

is     perfectly     straight     and 

square  with  the  working  face 

its   entire   length,   mark   this 

the  working  edge.  This  is  in- 
dicated with  two  short  paral- 
lel lines  (||). 

PREPARING  A  WORKING  END. 

Paragraph  5.  After  you  have  prepared  a  working  face  and 
a  working  edge,  the  next  step  in  squaring  stock  is  to  prepare  a 
working  end.  To  do  this  means  to  make  one  end  of  the  material 

perfectly  square  with  the 
working  face  and  also  with 
the  working  edge.  If  the 
end  of  your  material  has 
been  sawed  reasonably 
square  you  may  be  able  to 
plane  it  perfectly  square  by 
the  use  of  the  block  plane. 
If  not,  you  will  have  to  saw 
it  first.  To  do  this,  square 
a  line  across  the  working 
face,  holding  the  handle  of 
the  try  -  square  firmly 


Figure  18. 


Figure  19. 


312 


against  the  working  edge, 
as  shown  in  Figure  19. 

Then  hold  the  try-square 
handle  firmly  against  the 
working  face  and  square 
this  line  across  the  working 
edge,  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 20.  With  the  back 
saw  carefully  saw  it  just 
outside  this  line.  This 
may  be  done  by  hold- 
ing the  material  on  the 


Figure  21. 

terial  is  damaged  by  splinters  being 
torn  out.  Plane  only  part  way  across 
from  one  edge  and  then  plane  from 
the  other  edge.  In  preparing  a 
working  end,  test  with  the  try- 
square  frequently  to  be  sure  that  it 
is  exactly  square  with  both  the  work- 
ing face  and  the  working  edge. 


Figure  20. 

bench  hook,  as  shown  in 
Figure  21.  With  the  block 
plane  smooth  this  end  until 
it  is  perfectly  square. 
Fasten  the  material  in  the 
vise  with  the  end  extending 
only  a  few  inches  above  the 
bench  top;  handle  your 
block  plane  as  shown  in 
Figure  22.  Do  not  attempt 
to  push  the  plane  entirely 
across  the  board ;  if  you  do 
you  will  find  that  the  ma- 


Figure  22. 


313 


GAUGING  LINES  WITH  THE  MARKING  GAUGE. 

Paragraph  6.  The  marking  gauge  is  used  to  draw  lines 
parallel  with  the  working  edge.  By  the  use  of  the  thumbscrew 
the  marking  gauge  can  be  set  to  gauge  lines  at  any  distance  from 

the  working  edge.  To  set  the  marking 
gauge  use  the  ruler  and  measure  from  the 
head  of  the  gauge  over  to  the  marking 
point,  then  tighten  the  thumbscrew.  When 
the  gauge  is  set  to  the  desired  distance,  the 
line  should  be  drawn  by  pushing  the  mark- 
ing gauge  the  length  of  the  material,  care- 
fully holding  the  head  of  the  gauge  firmly 
against  the  working  edge,  as  shown  in 
Figure  23.  Note  that  the  gauge  should  be 
tilted  from  you  somewhat  so  the  point  will 
not  enter  the  wrood  too  deeply.  A  me- 
chanic does  not  attempt  to  pull  a  mark- 
ing gauge,  because  in  so  doing  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  hold  the  head  firmly  against 
the  working  edge. 

Figure  23. 

GAUGING  LINES  WITH  LEAD  PENCIL  AND  RULER. 

Paragraph    7.    It  is  sometimes  more  desirable  to  gauge  a  line 

with  a  lead  pencil  and  ruler  than  with  the  marking  gauge.    With 

the  left  hand  hold  the  ruler  at  the  desired  distance  from  the  end, 

that  is,  if  you  wish  to  gauge  a  line  l1/^"  from  the  working  edge,  with 

the  thumb  and  finger  hold  the  ruler 
at  that  distance.  Then  as  the 
finger  drags  against  the  working 
edge  it  will  serve  as  the  head  of  the 
marking  gauge  (shown  in  Figure 
24),  and  keep  the  pencil  at  exactly 
the  same  distance  from  the  edge. 
The  pencil  should  be  held  firmly 
against  the  end  of  the  ruler,  then 
by  sliding  the  ruler  the  length  of 
the  material,  with  the  finger  held 
firmly  against  the  working  edge, 
the  line  will  be  drawn  parallel  with 
the  working  edge.  The  motion 
may  be  either  toward  or  from  you, 

Figure  24.  &S  3™  Ch°°Se- 


314 
GAUGING  LINES  WITH  LEAD  PENCIL  AND  FINGERS. 

Paragraph  8.  It  is  sometimes  quite  convenient  to  gauge  lines 
without  the  use  of  a  ruler  or  marking  gauge,  but  simply  by  the  use 
of  the  pencil  and  fingers.  This  is  particularly  true  in  gauging  lines 

which  are  a  short    distance   from   the 

M|  working  edge,  as  in  laying  out  a  cham- 

fer. To  do  this  hold  the  pencil  and  ma- 
terial as  shown  in  Figure  25,  allowing 
the  second  finger  to  drag  against  the 
working  edge  of  the  material,  serving 
the  same  purpose  as  the  head  of  the 
marking  gauge,  while  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  hold  the  pencil  rather  rigidly, 
thus  causing  it  to  make  a  line  equally 
distant  from  the  working  edge  as  it  is 
being  drawn  along  on  the  material.  In 
this  process  the  pencil  may  be  either 
pushed  or  pulled.  It  requires  a  little 
practice  to  be  able  to  do  this  skillfully, 
but  when  the  skill  is  once  acquired  it  is 
Figure  25.  a  great  convenience. 

BORING  ENTIRELY  THROUGH  MATERIAL. 

Paragraph  9.  In  boring  a  hole  through  a  piece  of  material 
which  is  likely  to  have  both  sides  subject  to  view,  it  is  necessary 
to  take  some  precaution  to  prevent  the  bit  from  splintering  the 

wood  when  it  comes 
through  the  board.  This 
splintering  can  be  avoided 
by  placing  a  scrap  of  ma- 
terial back  of  the  board  and 
boring  through  the  board 
into  the  scrap,  as  shown  in 
Figure  26.  Another  plan  is 
to  bore  almost  through 
from  the  face  side,  and  just 
as  the  point  of  the  bit  be- 
gins to  show  on  the  oppo- 
site side,  remove  the  bit 
Figure  26.  and  start  on  the  opposite 

side,  making  sure  that  the 

bit  point  starts  exactly  in  the  tiny  hole  which  it  has  formed  while 
boring  from  the  other  side. 


315 


BORING  TO  DEPTH. 

Paragraph  10.  In  boring  for  mortises,  and  sometimes  in  other 
lines  of  work,  it  is  necessary  to  bore  holes  to  a  given  depth.  This  is 
a  little  difficult  unless  you  have  some  way  of  measuring,  for  it  is 

inconvenient  to  remove  the 
bit  and  measure  the  depth 
of  the  hole.  Sometimes  the 
shop  is  provided  with  a  bit 
gauge,  which  can  be  at- 
;tached  to  the  bit  and  ad- 
justed to  allow  the  bit  to 
bore  any  desired  depth.  If 
you  do  not  have  a  bit 
gauge,  a  very  satisfactory 
substitute  can  be  formed 
by  boring  a  hole  through 

Figure  27.  &1Iiy  scraP  block,  then  saw- 

ing   it    off   to    the    length 

which  will  leave  the  bit  protruding  as  far  as  you  want  the  depth 
of  the  hole  to  be.  Then  leave  the  block  on  the  bit  while  the  bor- 
ing is  done  (See  Figure  27),  and  you  will  not  be  required  to  pay 
any  attention  to  the  depth,  simply  bore  until  the  block  strikes  the 
face  of  the  material. 


BORING  PERPENDICULARLY. 


Paragraph  11.  It  is  quite  frequent- 
ly necessary  to  bore  holes  perpendicularly 
into  a  piece  of  material.  To  do  this  it  is 
necessary  to  hold  the  bit  constantly  at  a 
right  angle  to  the  material  in  every  di- 
rection. To  be-  sure  that  you  are  doing 
so,  it  is  well  to  have  the  try-square  handy, 
and  when  you  start  the  bit,  test  the  posi- 
tion by  holding  the  try-square  as  shown 
in  Figure  28.  You  should  also  test  fre- 
quently with  the  try-square  while  boring 
the  hole. 


316 


BORING  AT  A  GIVEN  ANGLE. 

Paragraph  12.  It  is  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  bore  holes  at  a  definite  angle. 
To  do  this  determine  the  desired  angle 
and  set  the  T  bevel.  In  starting  the  bit 
hold  the  properly  set  T  bevel  in  such  a 
position,  as  shown  in  Figure  29,  so  the 
bit  will  stand  exactly  parallel  with  the 
blade  of  the  T  bevel.  Keep  the  T  bevel 
handy  so  that  you  can  test  frequently 
during  the  boring  and  thus  keep  the 
angle  constant.  It  is  hardly  safe  to  de- 
pend upon  the  eye  in  particular  work  if 
you  are  attempting  to  bore  at  an  angle. 


Figure  29. 

BORING  FOR  DOWELS. 

Paragraph  13.  In  bor- 
ing in  the  edge  of  material 
for  dowels,  it  is  well  to 
square  a  line  across  the 
surface  of  the  board  as  a 
guide  to  determine  when 
the  bit  is  held  exactly  per- 
pendicular to  the  working 
edge.  The  material  should 
be  fastened  in  the  vise  as 
nearly  straight  up  and 
down  as  possible  and  at  a 
convenient  height  for  the1 
boring,  as  shown  in  Figure 

30.  The  brace  should  be  held  so  that  it  will  be  perfectly  firm  and 
so  the  bit  will  constantly  stand  in  a  straight  line  with  the  line 
which  is  squared  on  the  working  face  of  the  material.  Of  course 
it  is  necessary  to  watch  carefully  to  hold  the  bit 'in  line  in  the 
other  direction  so  it  will  not  run  out  sidewise  on  the  board. 

NOTE:  Another  very  good  way  of  testing  to  make  sure  the 
boring  is  being  done  perpendicularly  is  to  use  the  try-square  as 
shown  in  Paragraph  11.  It  should  be  held  with  the  handle  against 
the  edge  of  the  board,  the  blade  will  then  indicate  the  proper  posi- 
tion for  the  bit. 


Figure  30. 


317 
SAWING  A  TENON. 

Paragraph  14.  In  forming  tenons  for  mortise  and  tenon 
joints,  the  tenon  should  be  sawed  to  the  gauge  line,  as  shown  in 
Figure  31.  The  material  should  be  fastened  in  the  vise  at  an 

angle;  this  will  make  it 
more  convenient  for  start- 
ing the  saw.  In  sawing  wide 
tenons  it  is  sometimes  con- 
venient to  saw  part  way 
from  one  edge,  and  then  re- 
verse and  saw  from  the 
other  edge,  thus  enabling 
one  to  follow  the  lines  more 
accurately.  Sometimes  the 
back  saw  is  used  for  this 
purpose,  but  the  large  saw 

Figure  si.  is  more  desirable  for  larger 

work. 


SANDPAPERING  A  CYLINDER. 

Paragraph  15.  In  shop  work  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
make  a  cylinder  without  the  use  of  a  turning  lathe.  This  is  done 
with  a  plane  and  sandpaper.  After  all  plane  marks  have  been  re- 
moved as  nearly  as  possible 
with  a  wood  file,  then  the 
cylinder  is  ready  for  sand- 
papering. To  sandpaper  a 
cylinder,  fasten  it  in  the  vise 
so  that  it  extends  beyond  the 
end  of  the  bench,  as  shown  in 
figure  32,  then  with  a  long 
piece  of  sandpaper  cut  in  a 
strip  of  any  convenient  width, 
sandpaper  the  cylinder,  mak- 
ing it  perfectly  round.  The 
sandpaper  should  be  grasped 
near  the  ends  and  then  pulled 
back  and  forth  over  the  cylinder  very  much  like  a  belt  would  move 
around  a  wheel.  By  turning  the  cylinder  frequently  and  continu- 
ing this  process  on  all  sides  it  can  be  made  almost  perfectly  round. 


Figure  32. 


318 


Figure  33. 


THE  USE  OF  A  STEEL  SCRAPER. 

Paragraph  16.  The  purpose  of  the  steel  scraper  is  to  finish 
and  to  produce  a  fine  surface  on  the  board  by  removing  all  tool 
marks  and  other  blemishes.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  finish 

the  surface  of  a  board  with 
a  plane  without  leaving 
plane  marks;  for  this  rea- 
son a  very  sharp  scraper 
must  be  used  as  the  final 
cutting  tool.  The  steel 
scraper  should  be  used  as 
shown  in  Figure  33.  No- 
tice that  the  scraper  is  held 
between  the  thumb  and 
finger  in  such  a  way  as  to 
throw  it  in  a  small  curve. 
This  has  a  tendency  to  raise 
the  corners  and  prevent 
their  marring  the  work. 
Sometimes  a  scraper  is  so  made  as  to  fit  into  an  iron  frame  which 
is  equipped  with  handles;  this  sort  of  cabinet  scraper  enables  one 
to  work  much  faster  than  with  a  small  hand  scraper,  shown  in 
the  illustration.  In  the  shop  where  considerable  resurfacing  is  to 
be  done,  such  a  scraper  should  be  provided. 

The  scraper  should  be  kept  very  sharp.  The  cutting  edge  should 
be  as  nearly  straight  as  possible,  with  the  exception  of  the  cor- 
ners being  slightly  rounded  to  prevent  scratching.  The  scraper 
may  be  sharpened  with  a  file ;  the  angle  at  which  it  is  to  be  sharp- 
ened varies  and  is  not  of  vital  importance.  After  filing  the 
scraper  some  men  use  the  tang  of  the  file  or  some  other  smooth 
piece  of  steel  and  rub  it  along  the  sharp  edge  of  the  scraper  to 
turn  the  edge  out  slightly;  this  makes  it  cut  more  readily.  You 
will  have  to  experiment  with  this  tool  in  order  to  sharpen  it  so 
it  will  do  good  work.  The  scraper  should  always  be  used  in  the 
direction  of  the  grain,  never  across  the  grain,  and  it  should  be 
used  to  finish  all  surfaces  of  cabinet  or  other  fine  work. 

NOTE:  As  a  rule  beginning  students  are  inclined  to  neglect 
the  use  of  the  scraper,  thinking  that  they  can  produce  a  satisfactory 
surface  with  a  plane  and  sandpaper.  In  order  to  avoid  this  mistake 
you  should  learn  to  use  the  scraper  early  in  your  work,  and  practice 
it  until  you  appreciate  what  an  important  tool  it  is  when  you  are  ex- 
pecting to  do  fine  work.  Of  course  its  value  depends  largely  upon 
its  being  kept  properly  sharpened. 


319 


SANDPAPERING  A  SURFACE. 

Paragraph  17.  In  sandpapering  a  surface,  the  purpose  is 
to  make  it  absolutely  smooth.  Sandpapering  should  not  be  begun 
until  the  surface  has  been  made  as  smooth  as  possible  with  a 

plane  or  a  scraper.  Sandpaper  must 
not  be  used  to  remove  the  roughness 
left  from  the  saw  nor  any  other  im- 
perfection in  the  work.  This  must  be 
removed  by  a  cutting  tool.  A  piece  of 
fine  sandpaper  should  be  wrapped 
around  a  block,  as  shown  in  Figure 
34,  then  the  block  should  be  grasped 
firmly  with  the  thumb  and  fingers, 
holding  the  sandpaper  in  position, 
while  the  block  is  pushed  back  and 
forth  in  the  direction  of  the  grain. 
(See  Figure  34.)  The  sandpaper- 
ing block  should  never  be  pushed 
across  the  grain.  If  sandpaper  is 
used  crosswise  of  the  grain  it  will 
leave  ugly  marks  which  can  scarcely 
be  removed.  So,  as  a  rule,  you  should 
adopt  the  motto  of  "never  sandpaper  across  the  grain."  Beginning 
students  are  inclined  to  rely  upon  sandpaper  too  much.  Fine  work- 
men use  sandpaper  only  for  the  final  finish  on  the  piece  of  material. 
They  make  the  cutting  tools  do  most  of  the  work  which  a  beginner 
attempts  to  do  with  sandpaper. 

Sandpaper  is  made  in  a  great  many  grades  or  degrees  of  fine- 
ness, ranging  from  00,  which  will  probably  be  the  finest  you  will 
require,  to  No.  3.  No.  1  will  probably  be  about  the  roughest  you 
will  need.  Most  of  your  work  will  be  done  with  No.  0.  Many 
students  waste  sandpaper  by  throwing  it  away  when  it  is  still 
valuable.  You  should  not  take  a  new  piece  of  sandpaper  until  the 
old  one  is  entirely  worn  out.  In  fact,  a  piece  of  sandpaper  does 
better  work  after  it  has  made  several  strokes  across  the  board, 
because  its  first  roughness  is  then  worn  down  and  it  is  smooth 
enough  to  leave  a  fine  finish  on  the  board.  Worn  sandpaper  should 
be  saved  in  the  shop,  for  it  is  useful  in  polishing  tools,  where  sharp 
sandpaper  would  be  too  rough  and  would  scratch  them. 

NOTE:  Somewhere  in  the  shop  there  should  be  a  box  into 
which  the  partly  worn  sandpaper  should  be  thrown;  it  would  not 
only  be  handy  for  use,  but  would  save  expense. 


Figure  34. 


320 


Figure  35. 


LAYING  OUT  FOR  DOWELS. 

Paragraph  18.     It  is  very  necessary  that  the  laying  out  for 

dowel  boring  should  be  absolutely 
correct,  otherwise  the  two  edges  will 
not  join  perfectly  when  the  assem- 
bling is  attempted.  The  edges  to  be 
joined  with  dowels  should  be  careful- 
ly gauged  with  the  marking  gauge. 
After  determining  the  distance  apart 
which  the  holes  are  to  be,  a  line 
should  be  squared  across  both  boards 
at  one  operation  in  the  manner 
shown  in  Figure  35.  To  do  this, 
fasten  the  two  pieces  in  the  vise  with 
their  gauged  edges  even.  With  the 
try-square  and  lead  pencil  square 
lines  entirely  across  both  edges.  In 
boring  the  holes  be  sure  that  the  bit 
point  starts  exactly  where  the  pencil 
line  crosses  the  gauge  line.  The  bor- 
ing should  be  done  as  indicated  in  Figure  30  in  this  chapter. 

LAYING  OUT  AND  PLANING  A  CHAMFER. 

Paragraph  19.  The  chamfer  is 
a  very  important  feature  in  a 
great  many  lines  of  mechanical  work. 
You  should  learn  to  make  a  chamfer 
accurately.  To  do  this  a  chamfer 
must  be  carefully  gauged.  This  gaug- 
ing should  be  done  with  a  lead  pencil 
and  ruler  or  with  a  lead  pencil  and 
finger,  as  already  shown  in  Figure 
25,  if  you  are  able  to  do  this  accu- 
rately. After  the  gauging  is  done 
the  board  should  be  clamped  in  the 
vise  and  planed  to  the  gauge  lines. 
In  planing  the  end  grain  the  block 
plane  will  be  found  most  convenient, 
although  if  you  have  no  block  plane 
Figure  36.  the  larger  plane  may  be  successfully 

used  if  you  do  it  carefully.  Planing  with  a  block  plane  is  shown  in 
Figure  36.  Notice  that  the  plane  is  held  at  an  angle,  but  that  it 
is  pushed  straight  across  the  board  (not  an  upward  motion).  Thus 


321 


it  makes  what  is  called  a  "shirring  cut."  This  causes  the  plane  to 
cut  smoothly.  The  fingers  on  the  left  hand  rest  against  the  board  as 
the  plane  slides  along,  and  thus  enable  one  to  hold  it  at  a  constant 
angle.  If  the  block  plane  is  pushed  entirely  across  the  board  in 
cutting  the  chamfer,  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  tear  out  splin- 
ters of  the  farther  edge  of  the  board.  This  splintering  process 
can  usually  be  avoided  by  chamfering  the  ends  first  and  making 
the  side  chamfer  later,  or  by  planing  part  way  across  from  one 
edge  and  the  remainder  from  the  opposite  edge.  When  a  chamfer 
is  well  formed  its  edges  should  be  sharp  and  straight,  and  should 
not  have  a  rounded  appearance. 

THE  USE  OF  THE  BENCH  HOOK. 

Paragraph  20.  The  bench  hook  is  used  in  holding  small  pieces 
of  material  while  they  are  being  sawed,  as  already  shown  in  Figure 
21,  Paragraph  5.  Place  the  bench  hook  in  such  a  position  that  one 
block  rests  against  the  edge  of  the  bench.  This  will  cause  the 
other  block  to  stand  in  a  convenient  position  to  receive  the  ma- 
terial to  be  sawed.  Place  the  material  against  the  block  and  grasp 
the  bench  hook  with  the  left  hand,  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  rest- 
ing on  the  material  to  be  cut.  The  sawing  should  be  done  close 
to  the  block  on  the  bench  hook,  thus  when  the  cut  is  finished  it  will 
saw  into  the  exposed  portion  of  the  bench  hook  and  prevent 
splintering  the  material  on  the  opposite  side.  The  bench  hook 
should  also  be  used  for  chiseling  purposes  so  as  to  avoid  abusing 
the  bench  top. 

DRIVING  NAILS  OR  BRADS  WITH  A  HAMMER. 

Paragraph  21.  In  driv- 
ing nails  or  brads,  the 
hammer  handle  should  be 
grasped  in  about  the  posi- 
tion indicated  in  Figure 
37.  A  mistake  frequently 
made  is  that  -of  holding 
the  hammer  handle  too 
close  to  the  head  of  the 
hammer.  With  this  sort  of 
hold  it  is  impossible  to 
strike  an  accurate  blow. 
Another  error  is  in  taking 
hold  of  the  handle  too  close 
to  the  end.  This  also  makes  it  impossible  to  be  accurate.  The 

ll-Voc. 


322 

position  shown  in  the  cut  is  the  most  desirable  for  ordinary  work ; 
you  should  cultivate  the  habit  of  holding  a  hammer  handle  in  about 
this  position.  Notice  that  the  handle  is  held  just  high  enough  that 
when  the  nail  is  driven  level  with  the  wood,  the  hammer  handle 
will  stand  almost  level.  If  you  hold  the  hammer  handle  too  high 
or  too  low  the  face  of  the  hammer  will  not  strike  the  nail  head 
squarely  and  will  either  bend  the  nail  or  slip  off  the  head  and  bruise 
the  wood.  The  position  for  the  left  hand  shows  how  the  material 
should  be  held  in  place  until  the  nails  fasten  it.  In  nailing  any 
sort  of  fine  work  you  should  exercise  great  care  not  to  miss  the  nail 
nor  to  strike  it  after  it  is  driven  level  with  the  wood. 


TOE-NAILING. 

Paragraph  22.  The  process  of  toe-nailing  is  quite  frequently 
used,  particularly  in  rough  construction  work,  where  one  piece  of 
material  joins  another  with  a  butt  joint.  This  process  does  not 

occur    very    frequently    in 

shop  work,  however  you 
should  be  familiar  with  it, 
for  it  is  often  used  in  gen- 
eral repair  work.  One 
piece  of  material  should  be 
made  to  fit  perfectly 
against  the  other  piece 
with  a  straight  butt  joint, 
and  should  be  held  in  posi- 
tion while  the  nails  are 
driven  at  an  angle,  as 
shown  in  Figure  38.  If 
you  are  working  with  very 
hard  wood,  it  is  sometimes 
a  bradawl  and  make  a  small  hole  in  which  to 


Figure  38. 


necessary  to  use 
start  the  nail. 

In  fine  work,  where  you  should  be  particular  not  to  bruise  the 
material  with  your  hammer,  it  is  necessary  to  finish  driving  your 
nail  with  a  nail  set.  The  illustration  shows  one  nail  which  has 
been  driven  and  set;  a  second  one  ready  for  the  set,  and  a  third 
one  in  the  process  of  driving.  This  one,  which  is  only  partly 
driven,  will  give  you  an  idea  of  the  angle  at  which  the  nail  should 
be  driven. 

In  house  construction  the  studding  are  toe-nailed  to  the  wall- 
plate,  as  illustrated  in  this  cut. 


323 


THE  USE  OF  CORRUGATED  NAILS. 

Paragraph  23.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  join  two  pieces 
of  material  with  a  straight  butt  joint  where  toe-nailing  would  not 
be  satisfactory,  or,  at  least,  inconvenient.  For  this  purpose  the 

corrugated  nail  has  been  de- 
vised. A  corrugated  nail  is 
simply  a  wavy  piece  of  sheet 
steel  sharpened  at  one  end. 
These  nails  vary  in  length 
and  width.  Figure  39  shows 
an  illustration  of  these  nails 
and  how  they  are  used.  The 
two  pieces  of  material  are 
brought  together  in  a  per- 
fectly fitting  butt  joint,  then 
the  nail  is  driven  across  the 
joint  standing  practically  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  the 
joint. 

The  illustration  shows  a  mitered  joint  fastened  with  two  cor- 
rugated nails,  one  entirely  driven  and  the  other  in  the  process  of 
driving;  it  also  shows  the  square  joint  being  made  in  a  similar 
way.  By  driving  two  or  three  corrugated  nails  into  such  a  joint 
a  very  strong  piece  of  work  can  be  made.  Sometimes  two  nails 
are  driven  from  one  side,  the  work  is  then  turned  over  and  two 
or  three  are  driven  from  the  other  side;  this  is  done  only  where 
great  strength  is  required.  You  will  notice  that  the  corrugated 
nails  show  even  when  they  are  entirely  driven;  for  this  reason 
they  are  not  used  in  fine  work,  unless  the  joint  is  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  nail  can  be  driven  from  the  wrong  side.  They  are  used 
considerably  in  the  making  of  window  screens  and  in  various 
lines  of  cheap  construction  which  do  not  demand  a  cabinet  finish. 
The  great  advantage  of  the  corrugated  nail  is  strength  and  speed 
in  construction. 


Figure  39. 


324 


LAYING  OUT  HALF-PITCH  RAFTER  OR  BRACE  CUT. 

Paragraph  24.  In  laying  out  the  half -pitch  cut  (Chapter  V, 
Paragraph  75)  use  the  large  steel  square,  as  shown  in  Figure  40. 
Lay  the  square  on  the  working  face  of  the  material  in  such  a  way 

that  the  same  figure  on  the 
,  blade  and  on  the  tongue  are 
exactly  even  with  the  work- 
ing edge  of  the  material. 
Note:  One  side  of  a 
carpenter's  square  is  24 
inches  long — this  arm  is 
called  the  blade;  the  other 
arm  is  usually  16  inches 

Flgure  40  long  and  is  spoken    of    as 

the  tongue.  For  illustra- 
tion, if  you  take  figure  12"  on  the  blade  of  the  square  and  make  it 
exactly  even  with  the  working  edge,  also  make  figure  12"  on  the 
tongue  of  the  square  exactly  even  with  the  working  edge.  When 
the  square  is  in  this  position  you  can  mark  along  either  the  tongue 
or  the  blade  and  the  angle  will  be  exactly  45  degrees  or  the  regu- 
lar half-pitch  cut.  It  does  not  matter  what  figures  you  use,  but  be 
sure  you  use  the  same  figure  on  the  blade  and  tongue,  4  and  4,  6 
and  6,  or  any  two  numbers  will  give  exactly  the  same  angle. 


LAYING  OUT  THE  THIRD-PITCH  BRACE  OR  RAFTER  CUT 

Paragraph  25.  In  laying  out  a  third-pitch  brace  or  rafter 
cut  (Chapter  V.,  Paragraph  76),  lay  the  steel  square  on  the  work- 
ing face  of  the  material  in  such  a  position  that  the  figure  on  the 

tongue  is  equal  to  one-third 
of  twice  the  figure  on  the 
blade.  (See  Figure  41.) 
For  illustration,  if  on  the 
blade  you  have  the  figure 
12",  on  the  tongue  you 
should  have  the  figure  8"  (8 
being  one-third  of  twice  12, 
which  is  24) .  By  marking 
along  the  blade  of  the 
square  you  could  lay  out 
the  lower  end,  or  foot,  of  a  third-pitch  rafter.  By  marking  along 
the  tongue  of  the  square  you  could  lay  out  the  top  cut. 


Figure  41. 


325 

LAYING  OUT  THE  QUARTER-PITCH  BRACE  OR  RAFTER 

CUT. 

Paragraph  26.  In  laying  out  a  quarter-pitch  cut  (Chapter 
V.,  Paragraph  77),  lay  the  steel  square  on  the  working  face  of 
the  material  in  such  a  position  that  the  number  of  inches  indi- 
cated on  the  blade  will  bo 
twice  the  number  on  the 
tongue,  and  make  these  fig- 
ures exactly  even  with  the 
working  edge.  (See  Fig- 
ure 42.)  For  illustration, 
if  on  the  blade  you  make  the 
number  8"  even  with  the 
working  edge,  on  the 


Figure  42  tongue  make  the  number  4" 

even     with     the     working 

edge.  Then  by  marking  along  the  blade  of  the  square  you  will  lay 
out  the  angle  of  the  foot,  or  lower  end  of  the  quarter  pitch  rafter 
or  brace.  By  marking  along  the  tongue  of  the  square  you  could  lay 
out  the  angle  for  the  top  cut. 

READING  AND  WRITING  DIMENSIONS  OF  LUMBER. 

Paragraph  27.  In  stating  the  dimensions  of  lumber,  the 
thickness  is  always  given  first,  then  .width,  and  last,  length.  In- 
stead of  writing  out  the  word  inches,  the  sign — two  dots  (written 
") — is  generally  used,  and  for  feet,  one  dot  (written  ').  Instead 
of  writing  the  word  "by,"  as  in  the  expression  2"  by  4",  the  sign 
x  is  used,  and  it  should  be  written  2"x4".  Thus,  in  describing 
a  piece  of  material  which  is  l/^-inch  thick,  3  inches  wide  and  23 
inches  long,  it  will  be  written  ViTx3"x23".  The  expression 
would  be  read,  i/2-mcn>  by  3  inches,  by  23  inches.  This  rule  of 
giving  first  thickness,  then  width  and  then  length  is  universal  in 
all  lines  of  woodwork ;  always  name  dimensions  in  this  order. 

LUMBER  MEASURE. 

Paragraph  28.  In  measuring  the  distance  from  one  city  to 
another  we  use  the  mile  as  the  unit.  In  measuring  grain  we  speak 
of  so  many  bushels.  Coal  is  measured  by  the  ton.  We  are  all, 
more  or  less,  familiar  with  these  various  units  of  measure.  In 
measuring  lumber  the  board  foot  is  used  as  the  unit.  So  you 
should  become  familiar  with  the  board  foot.  In  speaking  of  the 
price  of  lumber,  it  is  generally  given  at  so  much  per  thousand,  or 


326 

so  much  per  hundred  board  feet.  A  board  foot  means  a  piece  of 
material  an  inch  thick,  12  inches  wide  and  12  inches  long.  The 
surface  of  a  board  foot  would  be  one  square  foot,  that  is,  it  would 
measure  12"  each  way.  Of  course  we  do  not  buy  lumber  cut  in 
units  of  this  size,  so  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  learn  how  to  figure 
the  number  of  board  feet  in  any  irregular-shaped  piece  of  ma- 
terial. To  do  this  you  might  think  of  how  many  board  feet  a  piece 
of  material  would  make  if  cut  up  into  pieces  the  size  of  the  unit. 
If  you  had  a  block  of  wood  2"  thick,  12"  wide  and  12"  long,  you 
can  easily  see  that  it  could  be  ripped  into  two  board  feet.  If  it 
were  3"  thick  it  would  make  three;  if  it  were  4"  or  5"  thick  it 
would  make  four  or  five  board  feet,  etc.  It  is  also  easy  to  see  that 
a  board  1"  thick  and  12"  wide  would  contain  as  many  board  feet 
as  it  is  feet  long.  If  it  were  10  ft.  long  it  would  of  course  con- 
tain ten  board  feet. 

If  the  material  is  more  than  one  inch  thick,  the  thickness  is 
always  considered  in  figuring  the  board  feet.  If  it  is  less  than 
one  inch  it  is  considered  an  inch  thick  ;  this  means  that  if  you  are 
buying  material  which  is  more  than  one  inch  thick,  you  are 
charged  extra  for  it,  but  if  it  is  less  than  one  inch  you  do  not 
usually  get  any  reduction  on  that  account.  This  may  not  seem 
quite  fair  when  you  are  buying  material,  but  as  much  of  the  thin 
lumber  is  made  by  planing  down  one-inch  boards,  you  must  pay 
for  the  material  wasted  in  the  planing,  therefore  you  are  charged 
for  material  one  inch  thick. 

There  are  several  ways  to  think  of  the  problem  in  figuring 
the  number  of  board  feet  in  any  piece  of  material,  but  they  all  get 
the  same  results. 

A  simple  rule  which  is  practical  and  easy  is  to  multiply  the 
thickness  by  the  width  by  the  length,  all  being  expressed  in  inches, 
and  divide  by  1x12x12,  the  dimensions  of  a  board  foot. 
This  makes  a  simple  problem  in  cancellation.  With  thickness 
times  width  times  length  (in  inches)  above  the  line,  and  1x12x12 
below  the  line,  you  could  then  complete  your  problem  by  the 
method  of  simple  cancellation  and  the  answer  will  be  the  number 
of  board  feet.  For  an  illustration,  if  a  piece  of  material  is  2"x4"x 
16',  we  would  write  above  the  line  2x4x16x12  (notice  that  the  16 
is  feet,  therefore  we  must  multiply  by  12  to  reduce  it  to  inches), 
and  1x12x12  below  the  line— 


N  3 


327 


CHAPTER  III 
VARIETIES  OF  TIMBER 

A  GREAT  many  men  have  spent  almost  their  entire  lives 
studying  the  nature  of  timber  and  still  find  there  are  new 
things  to  learn.  You  cannot  expect  to  master  the  subject 
during  your  study  of  this  text.  However,  if  you  will  study  the 
various  references  given  you  will  learn  a  great  many  interesting 
things  about  timber.  Whenever  you  are  handling  any  kind  of 
lumber  you  should  think  that  it  was  once  a  part  of  a  living  tree. 
A  tree,  like  any  other  living  thing,  is  a  great  mystery.  It  is  hard 
indeed  to  explain  just  how  it  produces  its  timber,  but  if  you  will 
study  the  function  of  every  part  of  the  tree — the  roots,  bark, 
trunk,  leaves,  etc.,  you  will  gather  some  idea  of  how  it  acquires 
its  properties.  We  all  know  that  most  plants,  like  the  various 
grains,  vegetables  and  flowers,  grow  up  and  produce  their  fruit 
and  then  decay.  Such  plants  must  grow  again  from  the  seed  the 
following  year,  thus  making  no  use  at  all  of  the  old  stalk  of  the 
year  before.  Now,  just  why  certain  plants  continue  year  after 
year  to  build  a  strong  body  upon  which  to  support  their  branches, 
leaves  and  fruit,  is  hard  to  explain;  but  the  fact  that  tree  plants 
do  produce  a  magnificent  body  that  can  be  sawed  up  into  valuable 
timber  is  a  characteristic  which  makes  the  forests  of  so  much  im- 
portance. 

There  are  so  many  different  kinds  of  trees  that  it  would  be 
almost  impossible  to  make  a  list  and  offer  a  description  of  all  of 
them.  Our  very  best  authorities  on  trees  and  timber  say  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  describe  a  tree  so  accurately  that  it  can  be 
recognized.  However,  there  are  a  few  characteristics  with  which 
you  should  become  familiar,  for  they  will  guide  you  very  much  in 
an  effort  to  distinguish  the  trees.  While  you  may  never  be  able 
to  identify  every  single  tree  found  in  the  forest,  yet  it  will  be 
worth  while  to  you  to  identify  the  more  common  forest  trees. 

If  you  should  walk  on  the  streets  in  a  strange  city  you  would 
see  a  great  many  people  whose  names  you  would  never  be  able  to 
call,  but  if  you  understood  race  characteristics  you  would  be  able 
to  tell  when  you  met  a  strange  man  whether  he  was  a  negro  or 
a  white  man,  whether  he  belonged  to  the  Japanese  or  the  Amer- 


328 

ican  race,  or  at  least  you  could  form  a  judgment  as  to  the  great 
class  of  people  to  which  he  belonged.  This  same  general  classifi- 
cation is  true  in  the  matter  of  trees ;  while  you  might  not  be  able 
to  give  the  individual  name  of  every  tree,  you  could  probably  tell 
to  what  general  class  or  family  it  belonged. 

Our  American  trees  are  usually  classified  in  two  general 
classes.  Those  that  shed  their  leaves  every  year  (the  deciduous 
trees)  are  called  broad-leaved  or  hardwood  trees;  those  that  do 
not  shed  their  leaves  but  remain  green  are  called  evergreen  or 
softwood  trees.  The  terms  hard  and  soft  wood  are  misleading, 
because  the  timber  of  some  of  the  so-called  hardwood  trees  is 
really  very  much  softer  than  the  timber  of  some  of  the  so-called 
softwood  trees.  When  we  use  the  term  hard  or  soft  wood  we 
should  keep  in  mind  the  fact  we  do  not  mean  hard  or  soft  for  tool 
operations,  but  that  it  refers  to  the  general  classification  of  those 
that  do  or  do  not  shed  their  leaves. 

The  beauty  of  our  forests  is  due  mostly  to  the  hardwood 
trees,  which  take  on  so  many  different  colors  and  hues  at  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year.  We  are  all  familiar  with  the  beautiful 
green  which  is  first  seen  in  the  spring  and  summer,  then  we  know 
how  the  leaves  change  into  red,  yellow  and  gold,  thus  producing 
such  beautiful  effects  before  they  drop  off  in  the  fall. 

Of  the  hardwood  trees  the  most  important  are  the  oak,  wal- 
nut, elm,  hickory,  maple,  beech,  basswood,  hackberry  and  syca- 
more. Of  the  evergreens,  or  softwoods,  the  most  familiar  are  the 
pine,  fir,  hemlock  and  cedar.  There  are,  of  course,  a  great  many 
more  in  each  of  these  classes,  but  the  ones  enumerated  are  the 
most  commonly  found  and  best  known.  You  will  find  it  very  in- 
teresting to  study  the  trees  of  your  own  community  and  list  them 
into  the  two  general  classes  of  hard  and  soft  wood.  You  should 
study  the  general  characteristics  of  the  different  kinds  of  trees, 
and  when  a  tree  is  once  pointed  out  to  you,  acquaint  yourself  with 
its  characteristics  so  you  will  be  able  to  recognize  trees  of  that 
kind  when  you  see  them  again.  Many  people  who  are  not  very 
familiar  with  standing  trees  are  able  to  recognize  timber  when 
it  is  sawed  and  planed.  It  will  be  well  for  you  to  study  not  only 
the  standing  timber  of  your  community,  but  also  the  different 
kinds  of  lumber  as  you  handle  them  in  the  shop  or  at  home. 

Standing  trees  are  identified  by  their  general  size  and  shape, 
by  the  appearance  of  the  bark,  color  and  shape  of  the  leaves  and 
the  shape  and  position  of  the  branches,  and  possibly  most  of  all 
by  the  kind  of  flowers,  fruit  or  nuts  which  the  tree  may  bear. 
Some  kinds  of  trees  have  such  features  that  they  may  be  easily 


329 

and  quickly  recognized.  The  shellbark  hickory  is  known  for  its 
rough,  loose  bark.  The  beech  tree  can  be  unmistakably  identified 
by  its  smooth  bark.  The  elm  is  known  for  the  graceful  curves  of 
its  long  branches.  Other  kinds  of  trees  have  peculiarities  of  their 
own. 

Men  who  handle  material  in  the  shops  must  recognize  the 
different  kinds  of  wood  without  seeing  the  leaves,  bark  and  the 
standing  trees.  In  identifying  timber  in  this  way  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  other  features  rather  than  those  which  can  be  studied 
in  the  forest.  If  you  are  unable  to  see  the  trees,  then  you  must 
identify  the  wood  from  its  color,  weight,  odor,  nature  of  grain, 
etc. 

Some  woods  are  extremely  dark,  while  other  woods  are  very 
white.  Ebony  (which  is  an  imported  wood)  is  very  black — 
almost  jet  black,  while  bass  wood  is  a  very  light-colored  wood. 
Black  walnut  is  one  of  the  darkest-colored  woods  which  grows 
throughout  the  United  States.  Of  course  there  are  a  great  many 
shades  of  colors  in  wood,  ranging  from  the  dark  walnut  to  wood 
as  light  as  basswood  or  holly. 

Weight  is  also  a  feature  which  is  of  considerable  importance 
in  identifying  wood.  Some  woods  are  very  heavy;  hickory  and 
white  oak  are  the  heaviest  native  timbers.  White  pine  and  bass- 
wood  are  very  light  in  weight.  When  you  attempt  to  acquaint 
yourself  with  any  kind  of  wood,  consider  carefully  the  weight. 
Of  course,  it  would  be  impossible  to  state  accurately  how  much  a 
given  size  of  any  kind  of  wood  should  weigh,  because  this  de- 
pends very  largely  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  it  may  contain, 
yet  judging  from  weight  you  will  be  able  to  identify  timber  pretty 
accurately. 

The  odor  of  the  wood  is  often  an  important  factor  in  enabling 
one  to  identify  it.  Nearly  all  of  the  soft  woods  have  a  very  dis- 
tinct fragrance  which  is  quite  familiar,  for  it  smells  considerably 
like  turpentine,  although  of  course  not  so  strong  and  disagree- 
able. Various  cedars  are  noted  for  their  odors.  The  red  cedar, 
of  which  chests  are  made,  is  very  valuable  because  of  its  peculiar 
and  lasting  fragrance.  You  should  always  notice  whether  or  not 
wood  has  a  peculiar  odor  if  you  are  trying  to  identify  it.  It  will 
not  take  you  long  to  become  familiar  with  the  odor  of  black  wal- 
nut, pine,  oak,  basswood,  and  some  of  the  other  more  common 
woods.  However,  it  is  impossible  to  describe  these  odors  suffi- 
ciently to  enable  you  to  identify  them;  you  must  learn  them  by 
experience. 


330 

The  shape  and  feature  of  the  grain  is  also  of  great  assistance 
in  enabling  one  to  identify  wood.  The  broad,  prominent  figure  in 
the  grain  of  yellow  pine  is  quite  familiar  to  every  one  who  has  ever 
handled  that  kind  of  wood.  Oaks  also  have  a  very  peculiar  grain 
which  is  easily  recognized.  It  is  the  attractive  display  and  beauty 
of  the  grain  which  gives  value  to  most  of  our  cabinet  woods.  In 
some  woods  grain  figure  is  not  an  important  characteristic;  bass- 
wood  and  white  pine  do  not  usually  have  distinct  grain  effects. 

The  very  nature  of  the  wood  fiber  and  its  strength  also  serve 
as  a  pronounced  guide  in  identification.  Some  woods  have  very 
open  pores.  This  is  particularly  true  of  chestnut.  Other  woods 
are  very  close  grained,  as  may  be  seen  by  examining  a  piece  of 
hickory  or  hard  maple.  Some  woods  are  very  flexible,  and  can  be 
bent  repeatedly  without  cracking.  The  elm,  hickory  and  mulberry 
show  this  quality.  Other  woods  are  very  brittle  and  will  snap  in 
two  on  slight  bending.  Some  woods  have  a  high  power  of  resist- 
ing tool  process  and  are  planed  and  sawed  with  great  difficulty, 
while  still  other  woods  are  easily  cut.  Any  boy  who  has  had  ex- 
perience whittling  with  a  jackknife  knows  that  white  pine  or  bass- 
wood  will  whittle  more  readily  than  a  piece  of  hard  maple,  hickory 
or  oak.  You  can  oftentimes  identify  a  piece  of  wood  by  attempt- 
ing to  whittle  it.  All  of  these  various  characteristics  must  be  care- 
fully studied  when  you  are  attempting  to  identify  any  piece  of 
wood.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  guessing,  but  a  matter  of  judgment. 
Whenever  you  are  using  any  kind  of  material  in  the  shop  you 
should  assure  yourself  that  you  know  what  sort  of  wood  it  is.  If 
you  are  unable  to  identify  it,  make  inquiry  until  you  find  its  name 
and  then  study  its  characteristics  until  you  are  sure  you  will  recog- 
nize that  same  kind  of  wood  when  you  see  it  again. 

You  will  find  it  an  excellent  plan  to  save  a  small  specimen  of 
each  kind  of  wood  (no  more  than  an  inch  wide,  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick  and  an  inch  or  two  long,  would  serve  very  convenient- 
ly) .  The  name  of  the  wood  might  be  written  on  the  specimen.  It 
could  then  be  kept  as  a  standard  with  which  to  compare  and 
identify  woods.  Of  course,  in  making  up  a  set  of  specimens  you 
should  make  sure  that  the  one  which  you  select  is  true  to  the  type 
and  not  discolored  or  unusual  in  any  way.  The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment has  taken  the  pains  to  prepare  a  set  of  samples  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  timber  of  commerce  growing  throughout  the 
United  States.  Practical  information  regarding  this  matter  can  be 
had  by  addressing  the  Department  of  Forestry  Service,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 


331 


THE  HARD  WOOD  OR  BROAD-LEAVED 

TREES 

OAK. 

Paragraph  29.  The  most  important  hardwood  trees  are  the 
oaks.  The  oaks  have  been  called  the  "Royal  Family"  of  American 
woods.  This  reputation  has  been  given  this  class  of  trees  on  account 
of  their  broad  application,  their  unusual  durability,  their  great 
strength  and  unequalled  beauty.  Oak  wood  can  be  used  for  all  kinds 
of  constructive  work,  almost  regardless  of  conditions.  It  has  been 
performing  satisfactory  service  for  more  than  2,000  years,  so  me- 
chanics feel  that  oak  has  passed  the  experimental  stage.  A  few 
years  ago,  when  practically  all  constructive  work  was  of  wood,  the 
important  timbers,  such  as  sills,  beams  and  all  foundation  work, 
were  made  almost  entirely  of  oak.  This  wood  was  selected  because 
of  its  strength  and  durability.  There  is  no  other  wood  so  broad  in 
its  application.  This  is  true  not  only  on  account  of  its  great  adapt- 
ability, but  because  it  grows  in  almost  every  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  tree  reaches  a  very  large  size,  which  makes  it  suitable 
for  most  any  kind  of  heavy  construction  work. 

On  account  of  its  attractive  beauty,  as  well  as  its  durability, 
oak  has  become  the  leading  cabinet  wood,  and  because  of  the  great 
demand  for  choice  oak  in  cabinet  construction  it  has  almost  gone 
out  of  use  for  ordinary  rough  building  work. 

THE  OAK  FAMILY. 

The  oak  family  is  usually  divided  into  two  broad  classes.  They 
are  known  as  the  "White  Oak  Family"  and  the  "Red  Oak  Family." 
The  Government  recognizes  more  than  forty  different  species  of 
oaks  growing  in  the  United  States  and  they  all  belong  to  one  of 
these  two  general  families.  The  white  oak,  which  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  oaks,  is  often  spoken  of  as  "the  king"  of  hard  woods. 
It  is  the  standard  timber  of  commerce;  it  is  usually  taken  as  the 
standard  in  measuring  the  strength  of  any  other  timber.  Much  of 
the  beautiful  quartered-oak  which  we  see  in  fine  cabinet  work  is 
white  oak.  While  it  is  true  that  there  are  so  many  different  classes 
and  kinds  of  oak,  they  are  all  alike  in  one  respect — that  is,  all  oak 


332 

trees  bear  acorns.     That  is  about  the  only  single  characteristic 
that  is  pointed  out  as  common  to  all  oak  trees. 

The  broad  class  of  oaks,  known  as  the  "White  Oak  Family" 
(there  are  probably  twenty-five  different  kinds  of  oak  in  this  fam- 
ily) ,  all  produce  their  acorns  in  one  year. 

The  red  oaks  require  two  years  to  produce  acorns.  This  is 
the  most  important  distinguishing  feature  between  these  two  great 
families,  although  they  can  usually  be  told  by  the  leaves.  All  trees 
belonging  to  the  white  oak  family  are  recognized  by  their  round- 
lobed  leaves,  the  type  of  which  is  shown  in  Figure  43.  The  red 
oaks  are  known  for  the  sharp-pointed  lobes  of  their  leaves,  as 


Figure    43. 


Figure  44. 


shown  in  Figure  44.  This  is  a  family  likeness  which  is  found  in 
practically  all  of  the  trees  of  the  red  oak  family.  These  two  char- 
acteristics will  enable  you  to  determine  whether  an  oak  tree  be- 
longs to  the  white  or  red  oak  family.  On  account  of  there  being 
so  many  different  kinds  of  oak  and  because  they  have  so  many  dif- 
ferent local  names,  you  will  probably  not  be  able  to  recognize  any 
great  number  of  them  and  give  them  a  specific  name,  although  you 
should  be  able  to  determine  whether  or  not  a  tree  is  an  oak  and  to 
which  one  of  the  general  families  it  belongs.  The  following  table 
is  a  classification  of  oaks  which  is  generally  accepted  as  correct: 


333 


THE  WHITE  OAKS. 
(Acorns  ripen  in  one  year.) 

White  oak, 

Valley  oak, 

Brewer  oak, 

Sadler  oak, 

Pacific  post  oak, 

Gambel  oak, 

Post  oak, 

Chapman  oak, 

Bur  oak, 

Overcup  oak, 

Swamp  white  oak, 

Cow  oak, 

Chestnut  oak, 

Chinquapin  oak, 

Dwarf  chinquapin  oak, 

Durand  oak, 

Rocky  Mountain  oak, 

California  blue  oak, 

Engelmann  oak, 

Rocky  Mountain  blue  oak, 

Arizona  white  oak, 

Tourney  oak, 

Netleaf  oak, 

California  scrub  oak, 

Live  oak, 

Emory  oak. 


THE  RED  OAKS. 
(Acorns  ripen  in  two  years.) 

Red  oak, 
Pin  oak, 
Georgia  oak, 
Texan  oak, 
Scarlet  oak, 
Yellow  oak, 
California  black  oak, 
Turkey  oak, 
Spanish  oak, 
Blackjack  oak, 
Water  oak, 
Willow  oak, 
Laurel  oak, 
Blue  jack  oak, 
Shingle  oak, 
White  leaf  oak, 
Highland  oak, 
Myrtle  oak, 
California  live  oak, 
Canyon  live  oak, 
Woolly  oak, 
Price  oak, 
Morehus  oak, 
Tanbark  oak, 
Barren  oak. 


Although  the  oak  timber  throughout  this  country  has  been 
cut  in  great  abundance,  and  has  been  wasted  to  a  very  large  extent 
in  clearing  up  the  ground  for  agriculture,  there  is  still  an  abun- 
dance of  oak  in  almost  every  part  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
Government  is  taking  steps  to  conserve  our  present  standing  tim- 
ber. Lumbermen  are  also  beginning  to  realize  that  every  portion 
of  the  tree  should  be  used,  and  thus  waste  is  not  going  on  as  rapid- 
ly as  in  years  gone  by. 

The  use  of  veneer  is  also  doing  much  to  save  the  supply  of 
oak.  The  veneer  is  merely  a  very  thin  layer  of  fine  cabinet  wood 
glued  on  the  surface  of  some  cheaper  material.  This  gives  the 
finished  board  the  appearance  of  solid  cabinet  wood,  but  allows  the 
cheaper-  wood  to  be  substituted  for  the  bulk  of  the  work.  Veneering 


334 

is  prepared  in  several  ways.  Some  is  rotary  cut ;  that  means  that 
the  log  is  turned  over  on  a  lathe  and  the  veneering  cut  in  large, 
thin  sheets,  very  much  as  you  would  unroll  paper.  Another 
method  is  sawing.  Some  of  the  finest  grade  veneers  are  sliced 
with  a  very  thin,  sharp  knife.  A  great  deal  of  oak  is  used  in  mak- 
ing various  veneers.  You  will  find  it  interesting  to  examine  some 
of  your  furniture  at  home  to  determine  whether  it  is  solid  oak  or 
merely  overlaid  with  veneer. 

While  the  oaks  are  the  most  important  of  all  hardwoods,  it 
must  not  be  thought  that  the  other  woods  deserve  no  considera- 
tion. There  are  a  great  many  other  excellent  hardwoods  growing 
in  this  country,  and  we  should  acquaint  ourselves  with  some  of 
the  most  important  ones. 

ASH. 

Paragraph  30.  There  are  a  great  many  different  kinds  of  ash 
called  by  various  names,  such  as  black  ash,  blue,  white,  red,  green, 
prickly  and  water  ash.  They  are  all  very  similar  in  general  appear- 
ance and  characteristics.  Ash  is  very  hard  and  strong.  It  is  also  a 
very  heavy  wood.  It  is  stiff,  white  and  tough,  splits  readily  and 
shrinks  moderately  and  takes  on  a  good  polish.  It  is  used  quite  ex- 
tensively in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements,  also  in 
building,  particularly  in  the  construction  of  floors.  In  carpentry 
work  it  is  sometimes  used  for  inside  finish,  stairbuilding  and  panel 
work.  Ash  is  used  in  shipbuilding,  construction  of  wagons,  car- 
riages and  cars.  Much  ash  is  also  used  for  the  making  of  tool 
handles  and  in  hoop  factories.  Many  people  are  unable  to  dis- 
tinguish ash  from  oak,  although  by  making  a  careful  study  of  the 
grain  you  will  be  able  to  recognize  the  difference. 

BASSWOOD. 

Paragraph  31.  Basswood  is  sometimes  called  American  linden, 
lin,  bee  or  lime  tree.  Basswood  is  very  important  among  the  timbers 
of  commerce  because  it  is  still  plentiful  and  very  cheap.  The  wood 
is  very  light  both  in  weight  and  color  and  is  also  soft  and  lends 
itself  easily  to  tool  processes.  While  it  is  not  a  strong  wood,  it  is 
rather  stiff,  is  of  a  fine  texture  and  holds  its  shape  well,  al- 
though it  shrinks  considerably  in  drying.  Basswood  is  used  very 
much  in  various  lines  of  carpentering,  in  the  manufacture  of 
furniture  and  in  almost  all  kinds  of  woodenware.  Because  it  is 
soft  and  easy  to  cut,  it  is  convenient  for  carved  work  and  for  toy 
construction.  It  is  used  in  car  and  carriage  bodies.  The  bass- 
wood  tree  grows  rather  large,  therefore  the  boards  can  be  ob- 


335 

tained  in  broad  widths.  The  tree  grows  in  almost  all  the  eastern 
portions  of  the  United  States.  The  so-called  "white  basswood" 
is  a  variety  of  basswood  found  most  abundant  in  the  Allegheny 
region.  The  tree  does  not  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  but  the  wood 
is  beautiful,  clear  and  almost  white  in  color. 

BEECH. 

Paragraph  32.  The  beech  tree  is  pretty  generally  known  by 
its  smooth  bark  of  gray  color.  Practically  everyone  is  familiar  with 
the  small,  triangular  nuts  which  the  beech  tree  bears.  Beech  is  a 
very  strong  wood  and  was  once  used  for  house  construction,  al- 
though it  is  now  used  principally  in  lathe  work,  in  the  construction 
of  handles,  certain  parts  of  furniture  and  plane  stocks.  Beech  wood 
is  heavy,  stiff  and  hard  and  has  rather  a  coarse  texture.  It  is 
very  light  brown  in  color  with  a  pronounced  figure  of  the  grain, 
which,  when  once  learned,  can  be  easily  recognized.  Beech  is  not 
durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather,  shrinks  and  checks  badly  in 
drying,  but  when  it  is  thoroughly  dry  it  holds  its  shape  well  and 
takes  on  a  beautiful  polish. 

BIRCH. 

Paragraph  33.  The  United  States  produces  several  varieties 
of  birch  trees,  although  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  attempt  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them.  The  birch  is  easily  recognized  by  its  smooth 
bark.  The  outer  bark  cracks  open  and  rolls  back,  leaving  the  inner 
bark  of  almost  ivory  appearance.  It  is  this  feature  which  makes  it 
easily  recognized.  Every  schoolboy  knows  that  birch  bark  was 
valuable  to  the  Indians  in  the  construction  of  canoes.  Wood  of 
the  birch  tree  is  all  of  a  fine  texture,  almost  white  in  color  and 
very  hard.  It  is  a  beautiful  wood  and  takes  on  a  finish  which 
causes  it  to  resemble  cherry  somewhat,  yet  it  is  not  so  rich  in 
color.  When  once  thoroughly  dried  it  holds  its  form  well,  al- 
though it  shrinks  badly  during  the  drying  process.  Birch  wood 
does  not  stand  exposure  to  weather ;  for  that  reason  it  is  used  most- 
ly for  inside  work,  such  as  finishing  lumber  or  cabinet  work.  It 
is  recently  gaining  an  important  place  in  woodturning;  shoe  lasts, 
wagon  hubs,  and  shoe  pegs  are  usually  made  of  birch.  Consider- 
able birch  is  used  in  the  various  lines  of  woodcarving.  Birch  is 
frequently  used  as  an  imitation  for  mahogany,  and  if  properly 
treated  a  very  excellent  imitation  can  be  effected  because  of  the 
similarity  in  grain  and  general  appearance. 


336 

CHERRY. 

Paragraph  34.  Cherry  was  once  a  rather  plentiful  wood,  but  it 
is  now  becoming  very  scarce,  and  for  that  reason  so  expensive  that 
it  is  not  in  very  general  use.  Our  cherry  lumber  comes  from 
what  is  commonly  known  as  wild  cherry  trees.  These  trees  produce 
a  small  black  fruit  with  rather  a  bitter  taste.  In  most  parts  of 
the  country  the  larger  cherry  trees  have  been  cut,  and  only  the 
small  trees  can  be  found,  and  they  are  usually  rather  rare.  The 
wood  of  the  cherry  tree  is  rather  a  reddish-brown  in  color;  it  is 
heavy,  hard  and  strong  and  of  a  beautiful  grain  texture. 
Cherry  holds  its  shape  almost  perfectly  and  takes  a  magnificent 
finish ;  for  this  reason  it  is  very  valuable  for  cabinet  purposes,  al- 
though its  scarcity  no  longer  permits  its  being  used  in  larger 
pieces  of  furniture.  It  has  been  quite  popular  for  inside  finish, 
particularly  in  moulded  and  carved  work. 

CHESTNUT. 

Paragraph  35.  Chestnut  wood  is  not  a  very  valuable  cabinet 
wood.  It  is  light  in  weight,  has  very  open  pores,  is  rather  soft  and 
does  not  possess  very  great  strength.  It  shrinks  very  badly  and 
checks  considerably  in  drying;  however,  when  thoroughly  dry  it 
holds  its  shape  reasonably  well.  Chestnut  is  durable  even  when  ex- 
posed to  the  weather.  By  people  who  are  not  thoroughly  familiar 
with  timber  it  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  oak,  although  it  does  not 
compare  with  oak  in  beauty  or  in  value.  The  standing  chestnut  tree 
can  be  recognized  by  its  long  leaves  and  also  by  the  familiar  nuts 
which  it  bears.  Chestnuts  are  known  throughout  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

ELM. 

Paragraph  36.  Perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  shade  trees  is 
the  elm.  This  is  true  because  of  its  size  and  the  great  beauty  and 
grace  of  its  branches.  It  is  a  very  hardy  tree  and  rather  rapidly 
growing.  Elm  warps  very  badly  and  splits  readily,  but  is  one  of  the 
hardest  and  toughest  woods  when  thoroughly  dried.  It  is  only 
moderately  durable  when  exposed  to  weather  conditions.  It  is  capa- 
ble of  taking  a  high  polish  when  completely  dry.  It  is  used  princi- 
pally in  the  construction  of  agricultural  implements,  boats,  ship- 
building and  also  for  the  construction  of  cars  and  wagons.  Because 
it  bends  so  readily  and  is  tough  it  is  an  excellent  wood  for  the  use  of 
coopers.  It  is  also  used  in  the  construction  of  cheap  furniture. 
Sometimes  elm  is  mistaken  for  oak,  however  there  is  little  excuse 
for  such  an  error,  for  the  color  and  grain  of  the  wood  can  be  easily 


337 

recognized  if  a  little  care  is  exercised.     There  are  a  number  of 
different  kinds  of  elms ;  their  general  characteristics  are  similar. 

GUM. 

Paragraph  37.  Sweet  or  red  gum  and  the  sour  or  black  gum 
are  the  two  kinds  common  to  the  United  States.  The  most  impor- 
tant is  the  sweet  gum,  which  is  perhaps  more  commonly  known  as 
red  gum.  It  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  satin  walnut.  The  wood  is 
heavy  and  of  a  red  brown  color.  It  is  very  fine  grained  but  not  hard, 
although  rather  stiff  and  strong.  Gum  wood  presents  a  great 
difficulty  in  shop  work  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  warp.  It  re- 
quires careful  handling,  but  if  properly  cut  and  seasoned  it  holds 
its  shape  reasonably  well.  It  takes  a  beautiful  polish.  Fine 
veneers  are  oftentimes  cut  from  gum.  It  is  also  used  consider- 
ably in  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  On  account  of  its  beauti- 
fully marked  grain  it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  Cir- 
cassian walnut. 

HACKBERRY. 

Paragraph  38.  Hackberry  is  a  timber  which  grows  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States  and  is  usually  a  tree  of 
medium  size,  but  in  some  localities,  particularly  in  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi valley,  it  grows  to  be  a  large-sized  tree. 

The  wood  is  of  a  yellowish  white  color  with  moderately  fine 
texture.  It  is  hard  and  strong  and  quite  tough.  It  takes  a  good 
polish  and  has  a  handsome  appearance,  although  it  has  not  been 
adapted  to  general  use  for  furniture  making. 

HICKORY. 

Paragraph  39.  For  many  years  hickory  has  been  one  of  the 
best  known  of  all  of  our  native  timbers.  The  most  familiar  variety 
is  the  shell-bark  hickory,  so  named  from  the  tendency  of  the  tree  to 
shed  its  outside  rough  bark.  The  wood  is  very  strong,  heavy  and 
hard  and  is  probably  the  toughest  wood  that  grows  in  this  country. 
On  account  of  its  straight  grain  it  splits  straight  and  readily 
and  this  makes  it  of  great  importance  in  the  making  of  shaved 
handles  and  certain  parts  of  wagons  and  carriages.  The  wood  of  the 
hickory  tree  is  almost  white  in  color.  It  must  be  carefully  dried  to 
prevent  shrinking  and  checking.  It  dries  slowly  because  of  its  com- 
pact nature.  Hickory  does  not  stand  well  under  exposure  to 
weather  conditions.  It  is  very  badly  attacked  by  insects  and  will 
be  rendered  completely  worthless  by  them  if  great  care  is  not  ex- 
ercised. 


338 

LOCUST. 

Paragraph  40.  There  are  several  varieties  of  locust  trees,  but 
they  are  all  very  similar  in  their  characteristics.  They  are  known 
principally  for  their  tough  wood  and  coarse  texture.  They  are  very 
hard  and  strong  and  will  stand  exposure  to  weather  conditions  al- 
most indefinitely;  for  this  reason  locust  is  the  leading  timber  for 
fence  posts.  In  recent  years,  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
much  has  been  done  to  raise  locust  trees  for  use  as  fence  posts.  The 
locust  tree  can  be  recognized  by  the  beauty  and  grace  of  its  foli- 
age. At  the  period  of  its  blossom  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  its 
flowers  render  it  unmistakable. 

MAPLE. 

Paragraph  41.  There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  maple, 
known  as  the  broad  leaf  maple,  silver  maple,  red  maple  and  sugar 
maple,  sometimes  called  hard  or  rock  maple.  This  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  maple  of  commerce.  The  wood  is  very  hard,  strong, 
stiff  and  tough  and  extremely  fine  in  texture.  In  color  it  is  a 
creamy  white,  sometimes  having  streaks  of  lightbrown,  particu- 
larly in  the  heart.  The  grain  is  often  quite  wavy,  from  which  is 
derived  the  beautiful  effect  called  "bird's-eye"  or  curly  maple.  It 
shrinks  moderately,  works  well  and  holds  its  shape.  It  wears 
smoothly  without  tearing  up  and  will  stand  almost  any  amount 
of  hard  use.  It  does  not,  however,  stand  well  under  exposure  to 
weather  conditions,  therefore  it  is  used  principally  for  inside 
work.  It  is  our  most  valuable  wood  for  floors,  counter  tops  and 
other  pieces  of  woodwork  which  must  be  subjected  to  hard  wear. 
It  is  also  used  for  finishing  lumber  in  panels,  stairways,  ship  and 
car  construction.  It  is  used  a  great  deal  for  tool  handles,  piano 
framework  and  shoe  lasts.  It  is  almost  always  selected  where  an 
unusually  hard  wood  of  beauty  and  stability  is  required.  Maple 
trees  are  quite  popular  as  shade  trees. 

POPLAR. 

Paragraph  42.  Poplar  is  sometimes  known  as  whitewood  or 
tulip,  but  in  the  lumber  form  is  more  often  spoken  of  as  yellow  pop- 
lar. It  was  once  one  of  our  principal  timbers  of  commerce.  Only  a 
few  years  ago  large  poplar  trees  were  abundant  and  poplar  boards 
could  be  had  in  almost  any  width.  The  wood  is  very  soft  and  easily 
worked,  has  a  fine  texture,  straight  grain,  light  of  weight,  of  a  light- 
yellowish  color,  without  a  very  pronounced  grain.  It  checks  but  lit- 
tle in  drying,  does  not  warp  badly  and  is  one  of  the  most  durable 


339 

woods  for  outside  exposure.  It  has  been  abundantly  used  for 
weatherboarding  of  houses  and  other  construction  work  where  it 
is  exposed  to  weather  conditions.  On  account  of  the  scarcity  it 
is  no  longer  used  in  larger  construction  work,  but  is  used  almost 
exclusively  for  paneling  and  in  the  making  of  drawers  and  other 
inside  work  in  cabinet  construction. 

SYCAMORE. 

Paragraph  43.  The  sycamore  tree  is  usually  a  familiar  tree, 
known  by  its  very  large  size,  huge  trunk  and  the  striking  feature  of 
its  white  bark.  This  whiteness  of  bark  is  seen  particularly  in  the 
upper  branches.  The  wood  of  the  sycamore  tree  is  rather  difficult  to 
work  because  it  is  almost  always  cross-grained;  it  is  very  hard 
to  split.  It  shrinks  only  moderately,  but  warps  and  checks  con- 
siderably; however,  when  thoroughly  dry,  it  holds  its  form  well. 
Sycamore  wood  is  only  moderately  hard  and  heavy,  but  rather 
tough  and  stiff;  it  was  once  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  mak- 
ing of  tobacco  boxes.  It  is  used  in  the  making  of  drawers  and 
bottoms  of  cabinet  work.  When  sycamore  is  thoroughly  dry  and 
well  finished  it  takes  a  magnificent  polish,  and  for  that  reason  is 
used  considerably  for  inside  finish. 

WALNUT. 

Paragraph  44.  Native  walnut  is  divided  into  two  general 
classes,  black  walnut  and  white  walnut.  The  white  walnut,  or  but- 
ternut, is  of  little  importance  among  the  timbers  of  commerce,  but 
the  black  walnut  is  possibly  our  most  valuable  native  cabinet  wood. 
Black  walnut  once  grew  in  abundance  in  almost  all  of  the  Mississippi 
basin,  where  the  forests  were  practically  filled  with  large  and 
beautiful  walnut  trees.  In  the  days  of  the  early  settlement  of 
these  regions  the  settlers  felt  that  the  logs  had  but  little  value  and 
consequently  piled  and  burned  thousands  of  feet  of  this  very  valu- 
able timber  in  order  to  clear  the  ground  for  agricultural  purposes. 
Black  walnut  was  also  used  very  largely  for  fence  rails,  and  much 
of  it  for  firewood.  On  account  of  this  great  waste  it  is  now  al- 
most entirely  destroyed ;  what  is  left  is  used  only  for  the  finest  of 
work,  such  as  in  gunstocks,  tool  handles  and  veneer  for  cabinet 
work.  The  name  black  walnut  is  derived  from  the  color  of  the 
wood,  for  it  is  almost  always  very  dark,  at  least  a  beautiful  rich 
chocolate  brown.  The  grain  and  figure  of  the  wood  are  usually 
very  pronounced.  The  most  beautiful  veneer  comes  from  the 
cross-grained  logs  and  knots.  The  wood  shrinks  but  slightly  in 


340 

drying  and  does  not  warp  badly  and  takes  on  a  beautiful  polish. 
The  beauty  of  walnut  seems  to  increase  with  age.  On  account  of 
its  scarcity  it  has  almost  entirely  passed  off  the  lumber  market. 
While  there  are  a  great  many  other  kinds  of  hardwood  trees 
which  furnish  more  or  less  timber  for  commerce,  the  ones  already 
enumerated  are  the  most  important  because  they  are  abundant  and 
therefore  the  most  common  in  general  use.  Most  of  the  other 
hardwood  trees  belong  to  some  of  the  families  already  mentioned. 


SOFT  WOOD  OR  EVERGREEN  TREES 

In  most  parts  of  the  United  States  the  hardwood  forests  have 
been  so  nearly  exhausted  that  much  of  the  timber  of  commerce 
now  consists  of  some  of  the  evergreen  trees. 

CEDAR. 

Paragraph  45.  There  are  a  great  many  differenet  kinds  of  cedar 
but  they  have  certain  characteristics  which  are  pretty  generally 
common.  They  are  usually  lightweight  wood,  soft  and  stiff  and  of 
rather  fine  texture.  The  wood  seasons  rapidly,  shrinks  and  checks 
but  little  and  is  very  durable  even  when  exposed  to  weather  condi- 
tions. Cedars  are  very  valuable  for  shingles.  They  are  also  used 
abundantly  for  posts  and  ties.  The  two  general  classes  of  cedar 
are  the  white  cedar  and  the  red  cedar.  The  red  cedar  is  used 
principally  in  cabinet  work  for  veneer.  It  is  also  used  abundantly 
in  the  making  of  lead  pencils,  for  which  purpose  alone  many 
millions  of  feet  are  cut  every  year. 

One  of  the  most  popular  purposes  for  which  red  cedar  has  been 
used  for  many  years  is  the  building  of  chests  in  which  to  store  furs, 
woolens  and  other  fine  fabrics.  This  wood  contains  a  sort  of  frag- 
rant oil  which  makes  it  proof  against  moths  and  all  kinds  of  insects. 
The  fact  that  this  fragrance  is  apparently  everlasting  makes  the 
wood  very  valuable  for  this  purpose. 

There  is  probably  no  wood  that  will  outlast  red  cedar,  and  al- 
though there  are  specimens  of  cedar  wood  taken  from  work  con- 
structed more  than  three  thousand  years  ago,  they  show  no  signs 
of  decay.  The  Bible  speaks  of  the  "Cedars  of  Lebanon"  from  which 
Solomon's  temple  was  constructed,  and  frequent  references  are 
made  to  the  cedar  as  a  type  of  permanence  and  wisdom.  The  famous 


341 

cedar  spoken  of  in  the  Bible  is  not  the  same  as  our  native  red  cedar, 
but  it  is  of  the  same  family  and  the  woods  possess  many  of  the  same 
characteristics. 

CYPRESS. 

Paragraph  46.  Cypress  is  a  wood  that  is  very  similar  to  the 
white  cedar.  It  is  a  light  wood  of  rather  open  pores.  The  boards 
can  be  had  in  great  widths,  because  the  trees  grow  very  large.  The 
wood  is  soft  and  lends  itself  easily  to  tool  processes.  It  is  used  for 
various  kinds  of  construction  work  which  do  not  require  great 
strength. 

HEMLOCK. 

Paragraph  47.  Hemlock  is  a  wood  of  light  reddish-green  color, 
free  from  rosin  pockets,  but  of  very  coarse  fiber  and  usually  cross- 
grained.  Although  very  splintery  and  frequently  defective  on  ac- 
count of  wind  shakes,  yet  when  sound  it  is  a  stiff  and  rather  strong 
timber.  It  shrinks  and  warps  badly  and  is  not  very  durable,  how- 
ever it  is  used  considerably  for  rough  framing  and  for  sheathing. 
The  increasing  cost  of  the  better  woods  has  forced  hemlock  into 
pretty  general  use  for  rough  work  in  many  localities. 

PINE. 

Paragraph  48.  There  are  so  many  kinds  of  pine,  and  the  term 
is  used  so  generally  in  speaking  of  all  of  them  that  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  wood  without  di- 
viding it  into  separate  classes. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  pines,  the  hard  and  the  soft 
pines;  the  hard  pines  are  also  called  yellow  pine,  while  the  soft 
pines  are  spoken  of  as  the  white  pine. 

HARD  PINE. 

Hard  pine  wood  is  stiff  and  quite  strong,  very  resinous,  shrinks 
moderately,  seasons  rapidly,  works  well,  but  is  not  so  durable  as 
soft  pine  when  exposed  to  weather  conditions.  It  does  not  hold 
paint  well  but  takes  a  fine  varnish  finish  and  for  that  reason  is  used 
quite  extensively  in  cheaper  grades  of  inside  finish  work. 

While  the  term  Hard  Pine  is  used  in  the  carpenter's  trade  to 
refer  to  any  kind  of  pine  other  than  white  pine,  yet  there  are  about 
ten  distinct  varieties,  of  which  only  five  are  of  any  great  importance 
to  the  building  trade. 


342 

The  Long  Leaf  Southern  Pine,  also  known  as  Georgia  pine, 
grows  to  a  very  large  size,  and  furnishes  a  very  hard  and  strong 
wood ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable  to  work  and  is  therefore  quite 
popular  in  construction  work. 

The  Short  Leaf  Southern  Pine  is  very  much  like  the  Loblolly 
pine.  It  grows  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  is  also  found  in 
North  Carolina  and  Texas. 

The  Loblolly  Pine  grows  to  a  very  large  size;  it  is  frequently 
confused  with  the  long  leaf  pine,  but  its  timber  is  coarser,  lighter 
and  softer.  It  is  found  in  several  of  the  southern  states. 

Yellow  Pine,  sometimes  called  Bull  Pine,  forms  extensive 
forests  in  the  Pacific  and  Rocky  Mountain  regions.  The  wood  is 
very  variable,  with  wide  sap  wood.  Most  of  the  hard  pine  of  the 
west  is  of  this  variety. 

Norway  Pine  is  the  northern  hard  pine ;  it  grows  in  the  north- 
ern states  and  Canada.  This  variety  does  not  form  forests  but 
grows  in  small  groves,  usually  with  white  pine;  its  timber  is  fine 
grained  and  of  a  very  light  color,  it  is  largely  sap  wood  and  is  not 
durable.. 

SOFT  PINE. 

Soft  Pine,  white  pine,  pumpkin  pine  or  sugar  pine  are  names 
which  are  used  in  different  localities  in  referring  to  the  soft  variety 
of  pines. 

White  pine  lumber  is  very  valuable  because  of  its  many  excel- 
lent features;  it  is  of  uniform  texture,  works  easily  without  split- 
ting, seasons  well  and  shrinks  but  little,  does  not  warp  badly,  holds 
paint  well,  and  is  very  durable.  White  pine  was  once  used  con- 
siderably for  all  kinds  of  outside  work,  such  as  weatherboarding 
and  shingles,  but  the  advancing  price  has  caused  it  to  pass  almost 
completely  off  the  market  of  general  building  materials.  It  is  now 
used  only  for  finer  construction  work  and  for  pattern  making. 

REDWOOD. 

Paragraph  49.  Redwood  is  a  very  important  member  of  the 
cedar  family ;  it  is  famous  for  its  magnificent  size.  It  grows  thick- 
ly along  the  coast  in  California.  The  wood  is  very  light  in  weight 
and  of  a  red  color.  It  has  great  durability  against  weather  condi- 
tions. It  is  being  rapidly  converted  into  lumber  and  used  for 
weatherboarding  and  general  construction  work. 

MAHOGANY. 

Paragraph  50.  Although  Mahogany  is  not  a  native  wood  and 
you  may  never  have  a  chance  to  see  a  standing  tree,  or  even  a  log 


343 

of  this  kind,  yet  it  is  used  so  much  in  all  kinds  of  fine  furniture  that 
you  should  know  something  about  the  nature  of  the  timber. 

There  are  several  different  varieties  of  Mahogany  found  in  dif- 
ferent countries,  but  the  most  commonly  known  Mahogany  used  in 
cabinet  work  grows  in  Central  America.  The  trees  do  not  grow  in 
groups,  but  are  found  scattered  throughout  the  tropical  forests. 
They  grow  very  large  and  tall  and  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  can 
be  distinguished  by  their  fiery  appearance  above  the  other  tree  tops. 
Mahogany  hunters,  as  the  men  are  called,  who  go  out  and  locate  the 
trees,  climb  high  in  the  other  trees  and  look  about  over  the  forest 
until  they  can  see  the  top  of  a  mahogany  tree  in  the  distance.  The 
difficult  work  of  cutting  a  road  through  the  dense  undergrowth  then 
begins  and  it  is  often  quite  a  while  before  the  tree  is  even  reached. 
Cutting  the  logs  and  getting  them  out  to  a  shipping  point  is  another 
hard  task,  so  there  is  little  wonder  that  the  lumber  is  expensive. 

Mahogany  is  hard  and  serviceable,  does  not  shrink  nor  warp 
to  any  noticeable  degree,  will  hold  its  shape  and  form  indefinitely, 
does  not  split  nor  check,  is  somewhat  difficult  to  work  because  of 
the  cross-grained  nature,  but  will  last  indefinitely  even  under  try- 
ing conditions.  It  is  a  close-grained  wood,  and  usually  has  very 
marked  and  beautiful  figures  in  the  grain.  This  is  the  particular 
feature  by  which  it  is  best  known,  and  connected  with  the  rich,  dark 
red  color  makes  it  so  familiar  either  in  solid  form  or  veneer  in  fine 
furniture,  particularly  piano  cases. 

LUMBER  AND  METHODS  C7  SAWING. 

Paragraph  51.  While  it  is  impossible  to  understand 
just  how,  and  why,  the  tree  plant  produces  a  large  and  strong 
body,  yet  by  careful  study  men  have  been  able  to  find  out  much 
about  how  a  tree  grows.  We  cannot  at  this  time  make  a  full  ex- 
planation of  the  tree  and  its  manner  of  growing.  The  references 
regarding  trees  will  help  you  to  an  understanding  of  these  matters. 
We  are  concerned  now  in  thinking  of  trees  from  the  standpoint  of 
lumber.  In  order  that  we  may  thoroughly  understand  the  nature 
of  lumber,  we  must  remember  that  the  tree  grows  by  adding  a 
layer  of  woody  fiber  to  its  trunk  or  stem  every  year.  A  tree  grows 
very  rapidly  during  the  early  spring,  and  continues  its  growth 
throughout  the  summer  while  the  leaves  are  on.  When  the  leaves 
have  fallen  off  it  indicates  that  the  tree  has  practically  ceased  its 
growth  for  the  season,  and  through  the  cold  weather  it  does  not 
add  to  its  woody  fiber  as  it  does  through  the  spring  and  summer. 
This  will  help  you  to  understand  how  it  is  that  a  tree  produces  a 


344 

ring  of  growth  around  its  body  every  year.  When  the  tree  is  cut 
down  the  end  of  the  log  shows  a  great  number  of  rings,  each  ring 
representing  the  growth  of  one  year.  By  counting  these  rings  one 
can  determine  the  approximate  age  of  the  tree. 

It  is  important  that  we  learn  something  about  these  rings  be- 
cause they  have  much  to  do  with  the  nature  of  wood.  When  a 
log  is  sawed  into  boards  these  rings  form  the  figure  which  we 
often  speak  of  as  the  grain.  In  quarter  sawed  material  there  is 
another  very  beautiful  kind  of  figure  in  the  grain,  which  is  caused 
by  the  rows  of  cells  known  as  medullary  rays.  They  extend  from 
the  heart  to  the  bark  of  the  tree. 

PLAIN  SAWING. 

The  most  common  method  of  sawing  logs  into  lumber  is  what 
is  called  plain  sawing,  or  slash  sawing.  This  is  really  a  matter  of 
slicing  the  log  into  the  required  sizes,  as  shown  in  the  following 
illustration : 


PLAIN  SAWIHG 


EFFLGT  OF  WARPlhG 


This  is  the  most  economical  way  of  sawing  logs,  for  it  gives 
the  greatest  possible  amount  of  lumber  with  the  least  waste.  There 
are,  however,  some  disadvantages  in  this  method  of  sawing,  par- 
ticularly if  the  lumber  is  to  be  used  for  fine  cabinet  work.  Plain 
sawed  lumber  usually  warps  very  badly.  If  you  are  to  understand 
why  this  is  true,  you  will  need  to  know  something  about  the  cause 
and  effect  of  warping  of  lumber. 


345 


In  a  living  tree  there  is  always  considerable  moisture  in  the 
form  of  sap.  When  the  tree  is  cut  down  the  sap,  of  course,  ceases 
to  circulate,  and  the  moisture  in  the  log  begins  to  evaporate.  As 
the  log  dries,  all  of  the  concentric  rings,  representing  the  annual 
growths,  become  a  little  shorter  and  thus  cause  the  log  to  crack. 
If  it  has  been  sawed  into  boards  it  will,  of  course,  dry  even  more 
rapidly,  causing  the  portion  of  the  rings  in  each  board  to  shorten 
considerably,  and  thus  bend  or  warp  the  board,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  You  will  observe  that  the  edges  of  the  board  warp 
from  the  heart  of  the  log,  and  you  can  readily  understand  why  this 
is  true  if  you  will  stop  to  consider  the  cause  of  the  warping.  You 
will  notice  that  the  plank  in  the  central  portion  of  the  log  does  not 
bend,  but  the  shortening  of  the  rings  causes  it  to  become  thinner 
on  each  edge. 

QUARTER  SAWING. 

In  order  to  overcome  this  tendency  to  warp,  another  method 
of  sawing  has  been  devised.  This  method  also  adds  great  beauty 
to  the  appearance  of  the  boards  by  exposing  the  medullary  rays. 
This  method  is  called  quarter  sawing.  It  takes  its  name  partly 
from  the  fact  that,  in  the  process  of  sawing,  the  log  is  usually  cut 
into  quarters  as  the  first  operation.  There  are  a  number  of  differ- 
ent methods  of  quarter  sawing,  but  they  all  have  the  same  pur- 
pose in  view,  that  of  cutting  the  boards  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a 
direct  line  from  the  bark  to  the  heart.  The  following  illustration 
shows  four  different  methods  of  quarter  sawing: 


METHODS  OF  QUARTER  MW/ttG 


346 

Figure  A  represents  the  method  which  makes  each  board  per- 
fectly quartered.  By  studying  this  illustration  you  will  observe 
that  this  is  a  very  wasteful  method,  because  there  are  so  many 
wedge-shaped  pieces  that  cannot  be  used.  The  method  shown  in 
Section  B  produces  fairly  good  results,  but  is  not  so  perfect  as 
shown  in  Figure  A.  This  is  also  a  wasteful  method  on  account  of 
the  great  number  of  small  pieces  left.  The  method  shown  in  Sec- 
tion C  produces  very  good  quartered  effect,  although  you  will  ob- 
serve there  are  a  good  many  boards  which  are  not  cut  directly 
from  the  bark  to  the  heart.  This  is  one  of  the  more  common 
methods  of  producing  quartered  oak  lumber.  The  irregular  pieces 
left  at  the  corners  are  usually  cut  into  stock  of  some  other  char- 
acter. 

Illustration  D  represents  still  another  method  of  quartering; 
it  does  not  produce  perfect  effects  and  is  rather  troublesome  to  do. 

You  should  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  quartering  is  a  method 
of  sawing,  and  that  it  is  in  no  way  related  to  any  particular  kind  of 
timber.  Any  sort  of  log  can  be  quartered,  although  oak,  which  is 
our  chief  cabinet  wood,  is  the  most  familiar.  This  is  an  excellent 
method  of  sawing  any  kind  of  wood  which  has  an  unusual  tendency 
to  warp.  It  would  no  doubt  be  in  more  common  use  if  it  were 
not  for  the  fact  that  it  necessitates  some  trouble  and  waste  in 
handling  the  material. 

DRYING  AND  SHRINKAGE  OF  LUMBER. 

As  lumber  changes  its  size  and  shape  in  giving  up  its  moisture 
or  sap,  it  must  not  be  used  in  any  sort  of  fine  construction  until  it 
has  been  sufficiently  dried  to  make  sure  that  it  will  hold  its  shape 
when  completed.  In  order  to  make  sure  that  lumber  is  properly 
dried,  or  cured,  as  it  is  often  called,  great  attention  must  be  given 
to  this  matter.  After  coming  from  the  sawmill,  it  is  usually  dried 
in  the  open  air  for  a  while.  To  do  this  the  lumber  is  piled  on  strips 
in  such  a  way  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely  on  all  sides.  Green 
material,  fresh  from  the  log,  should  be  left  piled  in  this  way  for 
a  considerable  time.  To  produce  an  excellent  quality  of  cabinet 
material  it  is  well  to  have  the  lumber  air-dried  for  many  months. 
It  is  then  taken  to  a  dry  kiln,  which  is  merely  a  room  prepared  for 
the  purpose  of  continuing  the  drying  process.  Different  methods 
of  drying  are  used  in  different  kilns.  Steam  is  sometimes  turned 
into  the  dry  kiln,  after-  which  the  steam  is  turned  off,  and  dry  air 
is  introduced  and  the  temperature  is  continually  raised  until  it 
reaches  as  much  as  175  and  180  degrees,  where  it  is  left  for  a  num- 
ber of  days.  A  number  of  methods  have  been  devised  for  the  pur- 


347 

pose  of  hastening  the  drying  process.  It  is  not  desirable,  however, 
to  dry  a  board  too  rapidly,  for  there  is  danger  of  the  outside  sur- 
face becoming  dry  while  the  inner  portion  of  the  board  still  con- 
tains moisture  which,  upon  drying,  will  cause  the  board  to  crack. 
A  point  not  generally  understood  by  people  who  are  inexpe- 
rienced in  handling  lumber  is  the  fact  that  a  board  may  be  prop- 
erly kiln  dried,  and  yet  not  remain  so  if  it  is  improperly  treated. 
If  lumber  is  stored  in  a  damp  room  it  will  absorb  more  or  less 
moisture,  and  will  become  unfit  for  cabinet  work.  This  makes  it 
very  necessary  that  any  stock  of  material  that  you  may  have  on 
hand  for  your  manual  training  work  should  be  kept  in  a  room 
which  is  perfectly  dry.  A  very  excellent  plan  for  the  storage  of 
cabinet  lumber  is  to  provide  racks  or  hangers  from  the  ceiling. 
This  keeps  it  up  where  it  will  be  out  of  the  way,  and  at  the  same 
time  free  from  moisture.  You  cannot  hope  to  get  good  results, 
however  perfect  your  material  may  be  furnished,  if  you  store  it  in 
a  damp  basement  room.  This  tendency  to  absorb  moisture  from 
the  atmsophere  makes  it  necessary  that  any  piece  of  cabinet  con- 
struction should  have  its  surface  properly  protected  by  being  well 
finished,  with  filler,  varnish  or  some  other  suitable  protection,  as 
explained  in  Chapter  IV. 


348 

CHAPTER  IV 
WOOD  FINISHING 

PAINTING. 
Paragraph  52. 

THERE  are  a  great  many  different  methods  and  processes  of 
wood  finishing,  but  they  all  have  about  the  same  purpose  in 
view,  that  of  bringing  out  and  protecting  the  beauty  of  the 
wood.  On  any  kind  of  woodwork  which  is  exposed  to  outside 
weather  conditions,  some  sort  of  paint  is  the  common  method  of 
beautifying  and  preserving.  A  great  many  kinds  of  painting  ma- 
terial have  been  used,  and  they  are  mixed  in  various  ways  to  suit 
different  special  purposes,  and  while  much  of  this  is  technical  in- 
formation, which  belongs  to  the  painters'  trade,  yet  there  are  a 
few  general  rules  regarding  painting  which  can  be  easily  under- 
stood. Wood  exposed  to  the  rain  and  snow,  sunshine,  wind  and 
other  weather  conditions,  if  unprotected,  will  not  last  long.  It 
absorbs  moisture  and  swells,  then  shrinks  when  it  is  dried,  and  is 
constantly  changing  its  shape  and  soon  begins  to  decay.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  paint  is  to  fill  the  tiny  pores  on  the  surface  and  pro- 
vide a  waterproof  covering  for  the  wood.  Linseed  oil  and  white 
lead  have  for  many  years  been  used  as  the  principal  ingredients 
of  paint.  Of  course  there  are  many  other  substances  which  have 
been  added  to  change  the  color  and  the  nature  of  the  paint.  Cer- 
tain kinds  of  drying  material  and  other  secret  preparations  have 
been  added,  but  the  principal  elements  in  the  paint  are  still  oil 
and  lead. 

Linseed  oil  is  an  oil  pressed  from  the  seeds  of  the  flax  plant; 
this  oil  is  used  either  raw  or  boiled.  The  raw  linseed  oil  is  gen- 
erally used  in  the  first  or  prime  coat  on  woodwork.  The  prime 
coat  of  paint  is  usually  a  thin  coat,  principally  of  oil,  containing 
only  a  little  lead ;  it  should  be  evenly  spread  and  well  brushed  into 
the  pores  of  the  wood. 

It  requires  about  three  coats  to  do  a  first-class  job  of  paint- 
ing. The  second  coat  contains  considerably  more  lead  and  color- 
ing material.  The  second  coat  should  not  be  added  until  the  first 
coat  has  become  thoroughly  dry.  This  coat  should  also  be  evenly 
spread.  After  the  second  coat  has  become  thoroughly  dry  the 
third  coat  is  usually  added. 


349 

The  third  coat  is  often  mixed  with  boiled  oil,  because  this 
gives  a  little  more  gloss  and  a  nicer  appearance  than  the  raw  lin- 
seed oil.  Sometimes  a  drier  is  added  to  the  second  and  third  coats 
of  paints. 

There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  excellent  ready-mixed  paints 
on  the  market,  and  for  one  who  is  not  experienced  and  skilled  in 
the  mixing  of  paints  it  is  much  better  to  buy  a  ready-mixed  paint 
and  use  it  in  accordance  with  the  directions  than  to  attempt  home 
mixing. 

CABINET  FINISHING. 

Paragraph  53.  We  have  just  learned  that  paint  is  used  princi- 
pally on  outside  work  or  on  things  that  are  to  be  exposed  to  mois- 
ture and  weather  conditions.  For  cabinet  work,  all  lines  of  furni- 
ture and  inside  work,  other  styles  of  finishing  are  used.  Since  paint 
covers  the  surface  of  the  wood  entirely,  the  natural  beauty  of  the 
grain  of  the  wood  is  lost,  and  for  that  reason  paint  is  not  used  in 
furniture  work.  Other  styles  of  finishing  are  used  which  will  pre- 
serve and  at  the  same  time  bring  out  the  natural  beauty  of  the 
wood. 

It  requires  even  more  skill  to  produce  a  fine  finish  than  it 
does  to  do  painting.  Many  men  spend  their  entire  time  and 
thought  in  wood  finishing,  so  you  must  not  expect  to  do  beautiful 
work  in  a  careless,  thoughtless  manner.  If,  however,  you  will 
give  the  matter  your  very  best  attention  and  be  careful  in  every 
step,  you  will  soon  be  able  to  produce  some  very  beautiful  finishes. 
In  producing  any  sort  of  finish  it  is  very  necessary  that  you  should 
consider  the  nature  of  wood.  All  wood  is  porous;  that  is  to  say, 
the  surface  presents  a  great  many  tiny  pores,  mouths  or  openings, 
which  are  ready  to  drink  up  anything  which  touches  it.  You 
have  no  doubt  noticed  when  a  little  water,  grease  or  ink  is  spilled 
on  a  bare  board  that  the  moisture  is  quickly  absorbed  and  the 
board  is  stained.  This  is  because  the  liquid  enters  the  pores  of 
the  wood  and  carries  whatever  coloring  matter  it  may  contain 
into  the  surface  of  the  wood.  Men  have  taken  advantage  of  this 
principle  in  all  kinds  of  wood  finishing,  and  you  must  thoroughly 
understand  this  in  order  to  be  able  to  produce  a  satisfactory  fin- 
ish. Before  taking  up  the  detail  of  the  preparation  of  the  finish, 
we  must  think  about  the  condition  of  the  wood  before  any  of  the 
finishing  material  is  applied.  Some  people  have  the  idea  that  the 
finish  will  cover  up  tool  marks,  rough  places  and  other  imperfec- 
tions in  the  wood.  This  is  not  at  all  true,  for  any  defect  in  the 
work  will  quite  likely  show  more  distinctly  after  the  finish  is  put 


350 

on  than  before,  so  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  surface  of 
the  wood  should  be  made  as  perfect  as  possible  before  any  of  the 
finishing  material  is  added.  To  do  this,  broad  surfaces  should  be 
carefully  smoothed  with  a  scraper,  as  explained  in  Chapter  II, 
Paragraph  16.  The  surface  should  then  be  carefully  sand- 
papered with  a  very  fine  sandpaper,  perhaps  00,  as  explained  in 
Chapter  II,  Paragraph  17.  If  there  are  any  holes  where  nails 
have  been  set,  or  any  other  openings  which  must  be  covered,  they 
should  be  filled  with  putty  made  the  desirable  color  so  as  not  to 
show.  They  can  sometimes  be  filled  with  glue  mixed  with  some 
of  the  wood  dust  which  comes  from  the  sandpapering.  The  mat- 
ter of  patching  defects  in  the  wood  is  quite  a  problem ;  it  requires 
skill  and  practice  to  do  it  perfectly. 

GETTING  THE  DESIRED  SHADE  OF  COLOR  BY  STAINING 
OR  DYEING  THE  WOOD. 

Paragraph  54.  After  the  surface  of  the  wood  has  been  made 
perfectly  smooth  and  absolutely  all  imperfections  removed,  the  next 
thing  to  do  is  to  decide  upon  the  desirable  color.  If  the  natural 
color  of  the  wood  is  wanted  no  staining  nor  dyeing  will  be  required. 
There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  stains  and  dyes  on  the  market, 
many  of  which  are  good  while  others  are  worse  than  worthless. 
The  stains  which  are  recommended  to  give  satisfactory  results 
with  one  coat,  thus  producing  all  of  the  steps  of  wood  finishing, 
are  not  to  be  relied  upon  for  satisfactory  work. 

Some  wood  dyes  are  mixed  with  water,  some  with  alcohol, 
some  with  oil  and  turpentine.  The  ivater  dyes  are  very  cheap, 
but  are  not  highly  recommended  because  the  water  soaks  into  the 
wood  and  raises  the  grain  very  badly,  leaving  the  surface  very 
rough  when  it  is  dry.  This  is  hard  to  overcome  by  inexperienced 
workmen. 

The  spirit  dyes,  as  a  rule,  give  rather  satisfactory  results, 
because  they  do  not  fade  as  badly  as  some  of  the  other  dyes.  They 
penetrate  the  wood  deeply,  but,  like  the  water  dyes,  they  raise  the 
grain  considerably  and  cause  the  surface  to  be  rough.  It  is  also 
rather  difficult  to  get  an  even,  smooth  color,  for  they  are  likely  to 
leave  blotches  and  spots  in  the  stain. 

The  oil  stains  are  very  easy  to  use  and  can  be  handled  by  the 
inexperienced  finisher  with  very  satisfactory  results.  The  oil 
stains  do  not  penetrate  so  deeply  and  consequently  do  not  raise  the 
grain  so  badly.  The  oil  stains  are  usually  rubbed  with  a  rag  after 
being  applied;  this  rubs  off  the  surplus  and  allows  the  natural 
beauty  of  the  grain  to  stand  out  in  a  very  desirable  way. 


351 

In  mixing  or  preparing  a  stain  of  any  sort  you  should  first 
try  it  on  a  scrap  of  the  same  kind  of  wood  upon  which  you  expect 
to  use  it.  Never  test  the  stain  on  your  piece  of  finished  work. 
After  the  stain  has  become  thoroughly  dry,  which  may  require 
several  hours,  examine  the  wood  carefully  and  see  that  it  is  per- 
fectly smooth.  If  the  grain  has  been  raised  it  may  be  necessary  to 
go  over  it  very  lightly  with  sharp  sandpaper,  but  you  must  be  very 
careful  not  to  sandpaper  too  hard  or  you  will  cut  through  the  stain 
in  places.  If  the  article  is  not  yet  the  desired  color,  another  coat- 
ing of  stain  may  be  added,  but  the  desired  color  must  be  obtained 
before  the  next  process  of  wood  finishing  is  undertaken. 

FILLER. 

Paragraph  55.  We  have  already  learned  that  the  surface  of  a 
piece  of  wood  is  porous  and  that  it  is  ready  to  absorb  any  sort  of 
liquid  which  is  applied.  The  stain  which  we  have  been  discussing 
penetrates  the  wood  through  the  pores  and  changes  the  color  a  little 
deeper  than  merely  on  the  surface,  but  inasmuch  as  the  stain  is 
very  thin,  or  as  the  painter  would  say,  has  "no  body,"  it  does  not  fill 
the  pores  of  the  wood,  therefore  even  though  the  desirable  color 
has  been  obtained  on  a  piece  of  wood,  the  surface  still  presents  in- 
numerable open  mouths  ready  to  drink  up  any  other  liquid  which 
at  any  time  might  touch  it.  The  next  step  in  our  finishing  process 
is  to  fill  all  of  these  tiny  pores,  and  to  do  it  without  destroying  the 
color  or  the  beauty  of  the  surface.  A  great  many  different  kinds 
of  filler  have  been  devised,  for  different  kinds  of  wood  require 
different  kinds  of  filler.  Some  wood  has  very  large  open  pores — 
chestnut,  for  example — other  wood  is  very  close  grained  and  has 
tiny  pores,  maple  being  a  good  example.  Of  course  we  would  not 
expect  that  chestnut  would  require  the  same  kind  and  quantity  of 
filler  material  as  maple.  We  must  take  into  consideration  the  na- 
ture of  the  wood  to  be  filled  in  order  to  determine  the  kind  of  filler 
to  be  used;  the  principles  are  so  similar  that  it  is  not  difficult  to 
get  a  general  idea  of  the  process. 

Wood  filler  is  simply  some  sort  of  pasty  material  which  can 
be  made  sufficiently  thin  to  enter  the  pores.  Then  when  the  liquid 
dries  the  body,  or^substance  of  the  paste  remains  in  the  pores  and 
fills  them  up  level  with  the  surface.  Various  materials  are  used 
for  this  paste.  In  the  cheaper  fillers  such  material  as  starch  is 
used,  but  in  the  better  fillers  a  harder  material,  such  as  silex  or 
ground  stone,  is  employed.  This  is  possibly  the  best  filler,  because 
the  silex  is  composed  of  tiny  crystals  of  stone  which  presents  a 
great  many  sharp  corners.  If  we  could  examine  this  filler  with 


352 

a  microscope  we  could  probably  see  that  it  is  made  up  of 
innumerable  crystals.  The  liquid  of  the  filler  would  carry  these 
crystals  down  into  the  tiny  pores  of  the  wood,  then  when  the  wood 
shrinks  the  crystals  would  be  held  fast  because  of  their  rough 
shape.  This  is  the  reason  that  ground  stone  makes  such  an  ex- 
cellent filler,  because  it  makes  the  surface  of  the  board  so  hard 
and  solid  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  it  to  absorb  any  other 
liquid.  Fillers  are  mixed  with  different  sorts  of  material,  some- 
times oil  and  turpentine;  sometimes  a  little  alcohol  or  gasoline  is 
used.  The  liquid  is  not  a  very  important  portion  of  the  fillers  be- 
cause its  principal  purpose  is  to  thin  the  filler  so  it  will  enter  the 
pores  of  the  wood.  In  your  work  you  will  find  it  best  to  use  a  good 
brand  of  ready-mixed  filler  and  follow  the  directions  for  its  use. 

The  filler  should  be  applied  with  a  stiff  brush  and  it  should  be 
well  rubbed.  Since  the  filler  is  not  to  remain  on  the  surface,  you 
do  not  have  to  give  any  attention  to  avoiding  brush  marks.  After 
the  filler  has  stood  for  a  few  moments,  or  until  it  begins  to  lose  its 
gloss,  it  is  then  time  to  rub  it  off  with  a  piece  of  burlap  or  coarse 
cloth,  rubbing  first  crosswise  of  the  grain,  to  rub  as  much  as  pos- 
sible into  the  wood,  then  afterward  rub  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain  until  all  of  the  surplus  is  removed  from  the  surface.  A 
sharp  stick  should  be  used  to  remove  the  surplus  filler  from  the 
corners  and  angles  of  your  work.  Always  be  sure  that  all  of  the 
filler  on  the  surface  is  rubbed  off  before  leaving  a  piece  of  work. 
If  the  filler  is  allowed  to  dry  over  night  it  will  become  hard  and 
it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  remove  it.  After  the  filler  has  had 
time  to  become  thoroughly  hard,  which  usually  requires  several 
hours,  you  are  then  ready  to  take  up  the  next  step  of  your  finish- 
ing process. 

The  work  thus  far  (getting  the  desired  color  by  staining  or 
dyeing  and  stopping  the  pores  by  rubbing  in  the  filler)  might  be 
called  the  foundation  work  of  any  sort  of  wood  finish.  No  differ- 
ence what  sort  of  finish  you  desire,  these  steps  should  be  carefully 
executed.  After  you  have  reached  this  place  or  completed  the 
foundation  work  you  should  then  decide  what  sort  of  finish  you 
are  going  to  make.  There  are  three  general  classes  which  will  be 
of  interest  to  you :  the  wax  finish,  varnish  finish  and  the  shellac 
polish.  Regardless  of  which  you  use,  if  you  expect  fine  results  the 
foundation  work  should  be  done  as  already  explained. 

WAX  FINISH. 

Paragraph  56.  The  wax  finish  produces  a  soft,  mellow  luster 
which  has  but  little  gloss.  It  is  a  popular  finish  for  hardwood  floors, 


353 

and  particularly  mission  furniture.  Wax  finish  is  easily  and  cheaply 
applied  and  does  not  require  any  great  skill.  It  can  easily  be  re- 
newed from  time  to  time  without  much  trouble.  The  wax  used 
for  this  purpose  is  principally  beeswax  which  has  been  melted  in 
turpentine.  Sometimes  other  ingredients  are  added,  but  these  are 
the  principal  elements.  The  wax  may  be  applied  with  a  soft  rag 
and  should  be  rubbed  evenly  over  the  surface.  While  it  does  not 
require  any  great  skill  nor  care,  yet  it  should  be  evenly  spread, 
and  one  should  avoid  leaving  bits  of  the  wax  in  the  angles  or  cor- 
ners of  the  work.  After  the  wax  is  allowed  to  dry  a  few  minutes 
it  should  be  rubbed  to  a  polish  with  another  dry,  clean  cloth.  If 
a  little  higher  polish  is  desired  a  second  coating  of  wax  may  be 
added  and  polished  in  similar  manner. 

Wax  is  sometimes  applied  immediately  after  the  stain  with- 
out the  use  of  a  filler.  This  will  give  only  fairly  good  results  and 
will  not  be  durable  for  the  reasons  already  explained  regarding 
the  open  pores  of  the  wood.  If  a  first-class  wax  finish  is  desired 
it  would  be  better  to  add  one  coat  of  shellac  to  the  foundation  coat. 
Allow  this  shellac  to  dry  at  least  twenty-four  hours,  then  sand- 
paper it  perfectly  smooth  by  adding  a  few  drops  of  oil  to  a  piece 
of  well-worn  sandpaper  and  carefully  rubbing  the  surface.  When 
the  entire  surface  has  been  made  perfectly  smooth,  then  the  wax 
should  be  applied,  as  already  explained.  One  objection  to  a  wax 
finish  is  the  fact  that  it  shows  finger  marks  rather  badly,  and  on 
work  which  is  subjected  to  continual  wear  must  be  renewed  occa- 
sionally in  order  to  retain  its  beauty  and  luster,  but  the  renewing 
is  so  easily  done  that  the  objection  is  not  serious. 

SHELLAC  FINISH. 

Paragraph  57.  The  shellac  finish  is  one  of  the  hardest  of  all  to 
produce.  This  is  a  finish  which  is  known  as  the  French  polish. 
This  should  be  undertaken  only  on  small  pieces  of  work  where  a 
very  fine  polish  is  desired  and  where  there  is  ample  time  to  give 
to  the  task.  A  fine  French  polish  cannot  be  obtained  in  a  few 
minutes.  The  foundation  coat  must  be  applied  as  already  ex- 
plained, then  a  good  coat  of  shellac  should  be  brushed  on  with  a 
soft  brush. 

Shellac  is  a  sort  of  resinous  substance  which  is  gathered  from 
the  bark  of  certain  trees  of  India.  This  substance  is  dissolved  in 
alcohol  and  then  applied  very  much  like  varnish.  The  best  grade  of 
shellac  is  mixed  with  pure  grain  alcohol;  this  makes  it  rather  ex- 
pensive, so  wood  alcohol,  which  will  do  very  satisfactorily  for 
ordinary  work,  is  usually  substituted.  Denatured  alcohol  is  very 

12-Voc. 


354 

frequently  used,  but  it  sometimes  happens  that  denatured  alcohol 
fails  to  dissolve  the  shellac  because  the  substance  used  in  the  de- 
naturing process  will  not  dissolve  shellac,  and  for  that  reason 
when  it  is  added  the  shellac  settles  in  the  bottom  in  a  sort  of  ropy 
substance  and  it  is  impossible  to  get  satisfactory  results  with  it. 
It  is  best  to  use  wood  alcohol  unless  you  can  buy  a  quality  of  de- 
natured alcohol  prepared  on  purpose  for  shellac  work. 

After  the  first  coat  of  shellac  is  added  it  should  be  allowed  at 
least  twenty-four  hours  in  which  to  dry  and  harden.  By  care- 
fully examining  the  surface  you  will  then  find  that  it  is  somewhat 
rough.  It  should  be  made  perfectly  smooth  before  another  coat- 
ing of  shellac  is  added.  A  few  drops  of  linseed  oil  should  be 
placed  on  a  piece  of  sandpaper  and  then  the  shellaced  surface 
should  be  carefully  rubbed  in  the  direction  of  the  grain.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  oil  is  to  prevent  the  rubbing  from  causing  the  shellac 
to  become  sticky.  The  linseed  oil  also  helps  somewhat  in  building 
up  a  polish.  When  the  surface  has  been  rubbed  perfectly  smooth, 
it  is  then  time  to  begin  the  more  difficult  portion  of  building  up 
the  French  polish. 

A  French  polish  is  rubbed  on  with  a  rag.  A  "rubber" 
is  made  by  twisting  a  piece  of  soft  cloth  into  a  wad  and 
then  covering  it  over  with  a  small  piece  of  cheesecloth  about  five 
or  six  inches  square.  The  inside  portion  of  this  wad  is  saturated 
with  the  shellac,  then  by  twisting  it  in  the  square  of  cheesecloth 
the  shellac  will  be  allowed  to  ooze  through  onto  the  surface  of  the 
work.  The  "rubber"  is  occasionally  dipped  into  linseed  oil  and 
then  rubbed  over  the  surface  of  the  wood  in  a  circular  motion. 
As  the  rubber  is  gripped  the  shellac  oozes  through  and  mixes  with 
the  linseed  oil  and  a  beautiful  polish  is  built  up.  The  rubber  must 
be  kept  in  constant  motion  while  it  is  on  the  surface;  if  it  is 
allowed  to  stand  still  it  will  stick  and  mar  the  polish  very  badly. 
The  skill  in  this  work  is  shown  by  being  able  to  rub  the  surface  to 
a  perfect  finish  without  leaving  any  uneven  or  marred  spots.  The 
rubber  is  opened  from  time  to  time  and  the  inside  portion  is 
dipped  into  the  shellac.  Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  have  too 
much  shellac  on  the  rubber  or  the  work  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
done.  It  will  require  several  hours  to  rub  even  a  small  surface 
no  more  than  a  foot  square  to  a  beautiful  rich  polish. 

A  very  excellent  shellac  finish  is  very  often  produced  by  ap- 
plying the  shellac  with  a  brush  and  rubbing  it  down  in  the  same 
fashion  as  a  rub  varnish.  If  you  desire  to  do  this  instead  of 
rubbing  on  with  rag  rubber,  as  explained,  apply  the  second  coat 
with  a  brush,  allow  it  to  dry  about  twenty-four  hours  and  rub  it 


355 

down  with  sandpaper  and  oil  in  exactly  the  same  way  that  the 
first  coat  was  rubbed.  Apply  a  third  or  even  fourth  or  fifth  coat, 
carefully  rubbing  down  each  coat  before  the  next  is  added.  In 
this  way  a  complete  smooth  layer  of  shellac  will  be  built  on  the 
surface  of  the  board.  For  a  final  rubbing  it  is  well  to  use  ground 
pumice  on  a  rag  moistened  with  linseed  oil.  This  is  very  much 
finer  than  sandpaper  and  will  produce  a  more  beautiful  polish. 
By  "spiriting  off"  with  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  which  has  been  very 
slightly  moistened  in  alcohol,  the  surface  may  be  rubbed  to  a  mag- 
nificent gloss.  This  requires  some  skill,  because  if  the  rag  with 
which  the  final  rubbing  or  spiriting  off,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is 
done  is  a  little  too  moist  with  alcohol  the  entire  surface  will  be  de- 
stroyed. This  final  polishing  rag  must  be  so  nearly  dry  that  it 
will  seem  only  the  least  bit  moist  when  touched  to  the  back  of  the 
hand.  It  will  require  a  great  deal  of  experimenting  and  patience 
to  produce  a  satisfactory  finish  with  shellac.  It  is  well  worth  your 
while  to  attempt  it ;  do  not  be  satisfied  until  you  get  good  results. 

VARNISH  FINISH. 

Paragraph  58.  The  varnish  finish  is  one  of  the  best  known  of 
all  wood  finishes.  Some  of  the  very  cheapest  furniture  is  treated 
with  an  inferior  grade  of  varnish.  The  customary  way  of  finishing 
inexpensive  furniture  is  to  brush  on  a  thin  coat  of  cheap  varnish 
and  allow  it  to  dry  and  consider  the  job  finished.  Such  a  surface  is 
always  unsatisfactory  for  it  is  easily  marred  and  does  not  present 
any  great  beauty.  To  prepare  a  satisfactory  varnish  finish,  the 
foundation  must  be  built  up  as  has  been  previously  explained. 
That  is,  the  wood  must  be  made  a  desired  color  with  the  stain  or 
dye,  and  the  filler  must  be  applied  so  as  to  fill  all  the  pores  of  the 
wood.  Sometimes  a  cheaper  grade  of  varnish  is  applied  instead  of 
the  filler. 

There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  varnish;  some  of  which  are 
very  cheap  and  worthless  and  with  which  no  amount  of  skill  and 
painstaking  would  produce  satisfactory  work.  They  scratch 
easily  and  leave  a  white,  dusty  mark  when  scratched.  You  can 
always  tell  cheap  varnish  by  scratching  it  with  a  piece  of  metal 
and  noticing  the  white  scratch  and  the  dusty  appearance.  The 
finest  grades  of  varnish  do  not  leave  such  a  scratch.  The  best 
varnish  is  made  of  copal  gum  which  is  imported.  This  gum  is 
dissolved  in  turpentine.  A  good  grade  of  varnish  is  expensive 
but  will  prove  cheaper  in  the  point  of  service  than  some  of  the 
less  expensive  varnishes.  Varnish  should  be  evenly  and  carefully 
spread  with  a  soft  brush  and  with  a  long  smooth  stroke.  It 


356 

should  be  thin  enough  to  flow  smoothly  from  the  brush.  Great 
care  should  be  exercised  not  to  allow  the  varnish  to  run  down  the 
corners  nor  to  accumulate  in  the  angles  or  low  places  of  the  work. 
Varnish  can  not  be  rebrushed  after  it  begins  to  dry. 

Varnishing  should  be  done  in  a  room  which  is  clean  and  per- 
fectly free  from  dust.  The  temperature  should  be  about  75  to  80 
degrees.  Varnishing  can  not  be  done  with  satisfactory  results  in 
a  cold  room,  neither  should  the  varnish  be  allowed  to  chill  until 
perfectly  dry.  You  can  not  do  satisfactory  varnishing  in  your 
manual  training  shop  where  dusty  work  is  being  done.  There 
should  be  a  separate  room  free  from  dust  and  dirt  and  of  even 
temperature  if  you  expect  to  do  varnishing.  When  the  first  coat 
of  the  varnish  has  had  ample  time  to  dry  (which  should  be  sev- 
eral days) ,  then  it  can  be  rubbed  down  ready  for  the  second  coat. 
Varnish  may  feel  dry  to  the  touch  after  it  has  been  on  a  few 
hours,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  A  sec- 
ond coating  of  varnish  should  not  be  added  until  the  first  coat  is 
absolutely  dry.  This  will  require  from  four  to  seven  days,  de- 
pending upon  the  kind  of  varnish  and  drying  conditions. 

The  first  coat  of  the  varnish  should  be  rubbed  smooth.  This 
should  be  done  with  ground  pumice  stone  and  water.  A  rag  should 
be  dipped  in  water  and  then  in  the  powdered  stone,  and  rubbed  on 
the  surface  of  the  varnish.  If  the  varnish  is  satisfactory  the 
water  will  not  damage  it.  The  rubber  for  this  purpose  is  often 
made  by  taking  a  strip  of  cloth  about  an  inch  wide  and  rolling 
it  up  very  much  as  a  tape  line  would  be  rolled.  A  string  is  then 
tied  around  it  and  this  pad  is  used  for  the  rubbing  purpose. 
Sometimes  linseed  oil  is  used  as  a  rubbing  liquid. 

When  the  first  coat  has  been  rubbed  smooth  then  the  second 
coat  should  be  applied.  This  coat  is  added  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  first  coat,  carefully  brushing  the  varnish  smooth  and 
avoiding  the  possibility  of  its  running  or  accumulating  in  the 
corners.  The  second  coat  should  be  given  from  five  to  seven  days 
to  dry,  after  which  it  should  be  rubbed  down  exactly  the  same  as 
the  first  coat  was  rubbed.  A  third  or  fourth  coat  may  be  added 
if  desirable,  and  each  coat  should  be  carefully  rubbed.  The  final 
coat  should  be  rubbed  with  the  pumice  stone  and  oil  or  water 
until  it  is  perfectly  smooth.  If  a  high  gloss  is  desired,  such  as  is 
found  on  a  piano  or  automobile  bodies  a  finer  rubbing  material, 
such  as  rotten  stone  and  water  or  oil,  should  be  used.  The  careful 
rubbing  with  rotten  stone  will  bring  out  a  magnificent  finish.  You 
will  observe  that  it  takes  considerable  work  to  produce  a  beauti- 
ful varnish  finish.  One  reason  why  so  many  people  fail  is  because 


357 

they  are  not  willing  to  spend  the  time  and  the  effort  necessary. 
Sometimes  varnish  finish  is  left  just  as  it  comes  from  the  brush 
without  any  rubbing.  Possibly  this  is  the  varnish  with  which 
you  are  the  most  familiar.  This  leaves  a  sort  of  cheap-looking 
gloss  on  the  surface  and  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  a  fine  piece 
of  cabinet  work. 

If  you  will  follow  these  directions  you  should  in  a  little  while 
be  able  to  produce  a  surprisingly  beautiful  finish,  but  it  will  re- 
quire thoughtful,  painstaking  efforts. 

CARE  OF  FINISHING  MATERIALS. 

Paragraph  59.  One  important  point  in  producing  a  fine  finish 
is  to  have  the  materials  in  good  condition.  No  one  can  produce  satis- 
factory finishes  with  dirty,  stiff  brushes,  and  finishing  materials 
which  have  been  exposed  to  dirt  and  dust.  All  finishing  materials 
should  be  kept  carefully  closed.  Bottles  and  cans  of  paint  should 
always  be  closed  as  nearly  air  tight  as  possible  when  not  in  use. 
Brushes  should  be  kept  in  some  sort  of  liquid  which  would  keep 
them  soft.  Shellac  brushes  may  be  cleaned  in  alcohol.  Brushes 
may  be  kept  in  fairly  good  condition  by  keeping  them  in  a  can  of 
water.  It  is  not  satisfactory  to  leave  the  brushes  where  they  will 
dry  and  become  hard,  for  they  are  thus  not  fit  for  use.  When 
you  are  through  using  a  brush  and  do  not  expect  to  use  it  soon 
again  the  best  plan  is  to  wash  it  in  warm  water  and  soap,  then 
allow  it  to  dry  with  the  hairs  straight,  and  it  will  be  in  good  con- 
dition the  next  time  it  is  needed. 

All  rub  rags  and  papers  which  are  covered  with  finishing 
materials  should  be  gathered  up  and  burned  immediately  after 
you  are  through  with  them.  It  is  unsafe  to  throw  dirty  rub  rags 
on  the  floor  or  in  a  corner  somewhere  and  leave  them.  They  are 
quite  likely  to  take  fire  by  what  is  called  spontaneous  combustion. 
So  always  gather  and  throw  your  rub  rags  into  the  stove  or  fur- 
nace or  put  them  somewhere  out  of  the  way  where  they  will  not 
set  fire  to  a  building.  This  may  seem  like  a  small  point  but  it  is 
extremely  important. 

There  should  be  some  place  in  your  manual  training  shop 
where  you  have  a  rack,  table  or  safe  for  all  staining  materials.  The 
staining  and  filling  should  be  done  at  this  staining  table  or  staining 
rack.  There  should  be  separate  places  for  all  materials  and  they 
should  always  be  kept  in  their  proper  places.  A  brush  which  is 
intended  for  one  color  should  not  be  used  in  another  color.  The 
shellac  brush  should  not  be  dipped  into  the  stain.  By  having  your 
staining  and  filling  apparatus  properly  cared  for  you  will  be  able 
to  do  this  work  without  any  difficulty. 


358 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PRINCIPAL  JOINTS  USED 
IN  WOODWORK 

PLAIN  BUTT  JOINT. 


Paragraph  60.  The  plain  butt  joint 
is  the  simplest  and  most  frequently  used 
joint  found  in  woodwork.  This  joint  con- 
sists of  one  piece  of  material  sawed  per- 
fectly square  and  brought  against  the  sur- 
face of  another,  to  which  it  is  fastened  by 
means  of  nails  or  screws. 

This  joint  is  used  in  innumerable 
ways.  It  is  employed  in  all  kinds  of  cheap 
box  construction,  in  the  making  of  bins, 

trays  and  almost  every  project  which  belongs  to  the  box  type. 

The  plain  butt  joint  also  occurs  quite  frequently  in  various  parts 

of  house  framing  and  in  bridge  construction. 

GAINED  OR  HOUSED  JOINT. 


Paragraph  61.  The  gained  or  housed 
joint  is  very  similar  to  the  plain  butt  joint 
except  that  in  one  piece  of  material  (B)  a 
gain,  or  dado,  is  cut  the  full  size  of  the  end 
of  the  other  piece  (A),  This  makes  it 
possible  for  the  end  of  the  one  piece  to 
enter  the  gain  and  be  supported  on  each 
side.  This  joint  is  usually  assembled  with 
nails  or  screws.  It  has  an  advantage  over 
Figure  46.  the  plain  butt  joint  in  that  it  affords 

strength  against  downward  pressure,  for  it  does  not  depend  en- 
tirely upon  the  nails  or  screws  for  its  support. 

This  joint  is  used  frequently  in  installing  partitions  in  trays 
and  boxes.  It  is  used  in  various  kinds  of  shelf  construction,  in 
building  permanent  shelving  in  store  buildings,  and  in  installing 
shelves  in  cabinet  work,  such  as  bookcases  or  china  cabinets.  To 
lay  out  this  joint  cut  the  end  of  the  piece  of  material  A  perfectly 


359 


square.  With  the  try-square  square  a  line  across  the  face  of  the 
material  B.  Square  another  line  across  the  face  of  the  material 
B  sufficiently  distant  from  the  first  line  to  provide  room  for  the 
thickness  of  material  A.  On  each  edge  of  material  B  gauge  the 
depth  of  the  gain,  with  a  lead  pencil  and  finger.  If  a  marking 
gauge  is  used,  do  not  gauge  farther  than  is  necessary  and  thus 
mar  the  edge  of  material  B.  With  a  try-square  square  the  two 
lines  on  the  edges  to  the  gauge  line.  With  a  back  saw  saw  on  the 
two  lines  which  are  on  the  face  of  the  material  to  the  gauge  line 
(it  is  well  to  saw  on  the  inside  of  the  mark  so  as  to  make  sure  the 
material  A  will  fill  the  gain  tightly) .  With  a  keen-edged  chisel  cut 
out  the  portion  between  the  sawed  lines,  test  with  the  edge  of  the 
try-square  to  make  sure  that  the  bottom  of  the  gain  is  perfectly 
level.  Assemble  by  bringing  the  end  of  the  material  A  into  the 
open  gain,  and  nail  through  from  the  outside  of  the  material  B. 

CROSSLAP  JOINT. 


Paragraph  62.  The  crosslap  joint  is 
sometimes  called  a  half  lap,  because  in 
making  this  joint  the  material  is  lapped  by 
cutting  out  half  the  thickness  from  one 
piece,  and  the  other  half  from  the  other. 
This  joint  is  employed  in  various  kinds  of 
construction  work  where  pieces  of  material 
running  in  different  directions  must  cross. 

TO  LAY  OUT  THE  CROSSLAP  JOINT. 

Figure  47. 

In  preparing  a  crosslap  joint  the  first 

step  is  to  make  both  pieces  of  material  perfectly  square.  Then 
square  a  line  across  the  working  face  of  one  of  the  pieces  of  ma- 
terial A  at  the  position  where  the  crosslap  is  to  come.  Lay  the 
other  piece  of  material  B  across  the  first  piece  with  its  working 
edge  exactly  even  with  the  first  line  squared  across,  and  with  a 
sharp-pointed  knife  measure  the  width  of  the  gain  which  is  to 
be  cut  in  A.  At  this  point,  with  the  try-square,  square  a  second 
line  across  A.  If  this  has  been  properly  done  the  two  lines  will 
be  just  far  enough  apart  to  receive  the  width  of  the  piece  B. 
Square  these  lines  down  on  each  edge  of  A.  With  the  marking 
gauge  set  to  the  depth  which  the  gain  is  to  be  cut,  carefully  gauge 
the  depth  of  the  gain  on  each  edge  of  the  material.  Exercise 
great  care  not  to  gauge  beyond  the  pencil  lines  which  are  squared 
on  the  edges.  With  a  back  saw,  saw  on  the  two  lines  down  to  the 


380 


gauge  line.  It  is  well  to  saw  on  the  inside  of  the  mark  in  order 
that  the  gain  may  not  be  too  large.  With  a  sharp  chisel  cut  out 
the  material  between  the  two  sawed  lines,  chiseling  part  way  from 
one  edge,  and  the  remainder  from  the  other  edge  to  avoid  splinter- 
ing out.  When  the  gain  is  cut  in  A,  place  B  in  the  gain,  and  with 
the  sharp  point  of  a  knife  lay  out  the  width  of  the  gain  to  be  cut 
in  B.  With  the  try-square  carefully  square  these  two  lines  across 
and  also  on  both  edges.  With  the  marking  gauge  set  exactly  as 
it  was  when  you  made  A,  gauge  the  depth  which  the  gain  is  to 
be  cut  in  B.  In  making  the  piece  B  your  gauging  should  be  done 
not  from  the  side  on  which  your  gain  is  to  be  cut,  but  from  the 
opposite  side  in  order  to  leave  sufficient  material  to  fill  the  gain 
which  is  cut  in  A.  Cut  this  gain  in  the  same  manner  in  which 
you  cut  the  gain  in  A.  After  the  joint  is  assembled  it  may  be 
well  to  plane  both  surfaces  very  carefully  with  a  sharp  plane  set 
to  take  a  very  thin  shaving. 

END  HALF-LAP  JOINT. 


Paragraph  63.  The  end  half -lap  joint 
is  very  similar  to  the  crosslap  joint.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  ma- 
terial is  cut  in  such  a  form  that  one  piece 
laps  over  the  other. 

This  joint  is  used  in  various  kinds  of 
frame  construction.  It  is  occasionally 
used  in  the  making  of  cheap  door  frames 
or  window  screens.  This  joint  is  also 
sometimes  used  in  making  the  corners  of 


Figure  48. 

sill  construction  in  small  buildings. 

TO  LAY  OUT  THE  END  HALF-LAP  JOINT. 

See  that  both  pieces  of  material  are  perfectly  square  on  all 
sides  and  on  the  ends  which  are  to  form  the  joints.  Square  a  line 
across  the  face  of  piece  A  as  far  from  the  end  as  the  width  of 
piece  B.  Square  this  line  down  on  each  edge  of  piece  A.  With 
the  marking  gauge  set  to  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  piece, 
gauge  the  depth  which  the  lap  is  to  be  cut.  Gauge  on  both  sides 
and  across  the  end.  With  the  back  saw,  saw  down  to  the  gauge 
line.  Place  the  material  in  the  vise  and  rip  out  this  corner.  When 
the  first  piece  is  finished  (it  should  be  carefully  smoothed  with  a 
sharp  chisel)  lay  it  on  piece  B,  and  with  the  sharp  point  of  a  knife 
indicate  on  the  working  face  where  the  line  is  to  be  squared 


361 

across.  Square  this  line  down  on  both  edges.  With  the  marking 
gauge  set  at  the  same  depth  as  it  was  when  piece  A  was  laid  out, 
lay  out  the  depth  which  the  lap  is  to  be  cut  in  B.  Bear  in  mind 
that  the  amount  of  material  left  on  in  B  must  be  sufficient  to  fill 
the  opening  cut  in  A.  For  that  reason  the  marking  gauge  must 
be  used,  not  from  the  side  from  which  the  gain  is  to  be  cut,  but 
from  the  opposite  side.  Gauge  on  both  edges  and  the  end.  Saw 
out  this  lap  in  the  same  manner  as  you  did  in  A.  Carefully 
smooth  with  a  sharp  chisel.  Assemble  with  glue  or  with  nails  or 
screws  as  the  nature  of  the  work  may  demand. 

PLAIN  MITER  JOINT. 


B 


Paragraph  64.  The  plain  miter  joint 
is  the  most  frequently  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  various  kinds  of  rectangular 
frames,  such  as  picture  frames,  window 
screens,  frames  of  moulding  in  various 
trimmed  work,  panel  work,  and  almost 
every  kind  of  construction  in  which  the 
rectangular  frame  is  employed.  The  miter 
joint  is  very  easily  constructed,  for  it  is 
usually  sawed  in  a  miter  box.  If  a  miter 

box  is  not  available,  this  joint  can  be  laid  out  by  the  use  of  the 
steel  square.  It  is  the  regular  half -pitch  cut  shown  in  Chapter 
II.,  Paragraph  24,  and  in  Paragraph  75  of  this  chapter.  The 
T-bevel  should  be  set  at  the  45  degree  angle.  This  is  done  by 
laying  out  the  45  degree  angle  with  the  steel  square  or  compasses 
and  setting  the  T-bevel  on  the  line  thus  laid  out. 

TO  LAY  OUT  AND  EXECUTE  THE  MITER  JOINT. 

Make  sure  that  the  material  is  perfectly  square.  With  the 
T-bevel  perfectly  set,  working  from  the  working  edge  (on  piece 
A) ,  lay  out  the  45  degree  angle.  With  the  try-square,  square  this 
line  down  on  each  edge  of  the  material.  Hold  the  material  in  the 
bench  vise  or  with  the  bench  hook,  and  carefully  saw  these  lines. 
If  the  material  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  can  be  reversed,  the 
other  piece  of  material  (piece  B)  may  be  turned  around  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  the  one  cut  answer  for  both  pieces.  This,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  done  if  the  material  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  have  a 
face  side,  which  must  be  up,  as  in  the  case  of  moulding.  In  this 
case  it  is  necessary  to  make  another  cut  in  the  same  way  in  which 
this  cut  was  made,  except  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  piece  of  ma- 


362 


terial.     Assemble  the  joint  with  glue,  or  with  glue  and  brads,  or 
with  corrugated  nails,  as  the  nature  of  the  work  may  demand. 

MITERED  HALF-LAP  JOINT. 


Paragraph  65.  The  mitered  half -lap 
joint  is  not  used  as  commonly  as  the  half- 
lap  or  mitered  joint.  However,  it  is  some- 
times desirable  where  the  face  of  the  work 
should  show  the  appearance  of  a  mitered 
joint,  and  a  little  more  strength  is  desired 
than  can  be  secured  with  the  plain  miter. 
This  joint  consists  in  half  the  thickness  of 
the  material  being  made  into  a  miter  joint 
Figure  50.  while  the  remaining  portion  is  cut  to  form 

a  half  lap. 

This  joint  may  be  used  in  making  window  frames,  small  panel 
doors  and  almost  any  other  sort  of  rectangular  frame  construc- 
tion. It  is  sometimes  used  in  picture  frame  construction,  though 
not  commonly,  because  the  edge  of  the  picture  frame  is  in  view 
and  the  half -lap  joint  would  be  rather  unsightly.  To  lay  out  the 
half-lap  joint  be  sure  the  material  is  exactly  square.  Piece  A  may 
be  first  cut  in  the  miter  box  or  laid  out  with  the  T-bevel  and  cut 
with  the  back  saw  at  the  regular  miter  cut  (as  shown  in  Para- 
graph 64) .  With  the  marking  gauge  set  to  one-half  the  thickness 
of  the  material,  gauge  the  depth  to  which  the  lap  is  to  be  cut.  At 
exactly  the  point  where  the  inside  of  the  miter  starts  square  a 
line  across  one  face  of  the  material  A.  With  a  try-square,  square 
this  line  down  to  the  gauge  line.  With  the  back  saw  carefully 
saw  out  as  indicated  by  the  line  just  described.  With  a  keen 
chisel  smooth  this  work.  Lay  this  joint  in  position  on  piece  of 
material  B  and,  with  the  sharp  point  of  a  knife,  mark  the  point 
where  the  miter  is  to  start.  With  the  T-bevel  lay  out  this  miter. 
Square  these  lines  down  on  both  edges.  With  the  marking  gauge 
set  exactly  as  it  was  when  piece  A  was  laid  out,  gauge  the 
depth  which  is  to  be  cut  away  in  material  B.  Saw  this  miter 
down  to  the  gauge  line.  (Notice  that  in  this  case  you  do  not  saw 
more  than  one-half  way  through.)  Saw  out  this  triangular  piece 
as  already  laid  out.  Smooth  with  a  keen  chisel.  If  properly 
executed  these  two  pieces  of  material  should  fit  perfectly  at  a 
right  angle.  Assemble  with  glue  and  brads  or  as  the  nature  of 
the  work  may  demand. 


363 

BLIND  OR  CLOSED  MORTISE  AND  TENON. 


Paragraph  66.  The  closed  mortise 
and  tenon  joint  is  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  commonly  employed  joints  of  wood- 
work. It  is  formed  by  cutting  an  opening, 
or  mortise,  in  one  piece  of  material  B  and 
shaping  the  end  of  another  piece  of  ma- 
terial A  to  enter  this  opening.  This  joint 
is  usually  assembled  by  the  use  of  a  wood 
pin,  which  gives  it  great  strength  in  every 
Figure  oi.  direction.  It  was  formerly  the  most  im- 

portant joint  in  house,  barn  and  bridge  construction,  because 
houses  were  originally  built  with  large  timber  in  the  frame.  This 
joint  is  not  common  in  modern  house  construction  because  the 
large  timbers  have  gone  out  of  use.  It  is,  however,  used  consider- 
ably yet  in  mill  and  bridge  construction  where  timbers  are  em- 
ployed. 

TO  LAY  OUT  THE  MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT. 

Be  sure  that  the  material  is  perfectly  square.  In  laying  out 
mortises  a  special  gauge  is  generally  used.  This  gauge  is  similar 
to  an  ordinary  marking  gauge,  except  that  it  has  two  points,  both 
of  which  are  adjustable.  Set  the  mortising  gauge  so  the  two 
points  will  be  as  far  apart  as  the  size  desired  for  the  mortise  and 
so  the  head  of  the  marking  gauge  will  be  as  far  from  the  first 
point  as  the  distance  you  desire  the  mortise  from  the  working 
face.  From  the  working  face  gauge  the  width  of  the  mortise  on 
the  working  edge  of  piece  B.  Determine  the  width  which  the 
mortise  is  to  be  and  with  a  try-square,  square  these  lines.  In  a 
blind  mortise  or  tenon  joint  the  depth  of  the  mortise  is  not  laid 
out,  but  you  should  determine  how  deep  the  mortise  is  to  be  and 
use  a  bit-gauge  or  some  other  device  to  determine  how  deep  to 
bore.  As  the  wood  is  to  be  cut  away  in  forming  the  mortise, 
select  a  bit  which  will  bore  a  hole  about  the  size  between  the  gauge 
lines.  Bore  as  many  holes  as  convenient  without  over-reaching 
the  layout.  With  a  sharp  chisel  cut  out  the  wood  to  the  gauge 
line.  Be  sure  that  the  sides  of  the  mortise  are  cut  down  exactly 
perpendicularly  in  every  direction.  Determine  the  length  of  the 
tenon  and  square  a  line  this  distance  from  the  working  end  of 
material  A  on  the  working  face. 

In  most  projects  the  length  of  the  tenon  is  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  work,  the  strength  required,  etc.  With  a  try-square 


364 

and  lead  pencil  carefully  square  this  line  on  both  faces  and  edges 
of  material  A.  With  the  mortising  gauge  set  exactly  as  it  was  in 
laying  out  the  mortise,  gauge  the  width  of  the  tenon  across  the 
end  and  down  the  edges  to  the  square  line.  Hold  material  on  the 
bench  hook  and  with  the  back  saw,  saw  down  to  the  gauge  line. 
Place  the  material  in  the  vise  and  saw  the  tenon  as  illustrated  in 
Chapter  2,  Paragraph  14.  If  there  is  to  be  a  relish  on  one  or  both 
sides  of  the  tenon,  lay  out  this  relish  and  saw  out  with  the  back 
saw.  Test  the  tenon  to  make  sure  that  it  exactly  fills  the  mortise ; 
pare  with  a  keen  chisel  until  it  will  enter  the  mortise  without  any 
danger  of  splitting.  Remove  the  tenon  from  the  mortise  and 
bore  a  hole  which  is  to  receive  the  fastening  pin.  Bore  this  hole 
first  through  piece  B,  which  contains  the  mortise,  then  in  the 
tenon  bore  a  hole  a  tiny  bit  closer  to  the  shoulder  than  in  the 
mortise.  This  will  have  a  tendency  to  pull  the  tenon  tightly  into 
the  mortise  when  the  pin  is  driven.  This  process  is  called  draw 
boring.  It  was  always  used  in  the  framing  of  buildings  in  order 
to  make  sure  that  the  joint  would  be  as  tight  as  possible  when 
assembled. 

THROUGH  MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT. 


Paragraph  67.  The  through  mortise 
and  tenon  joint  is  very  similar  to  the 
pinned  mortise  and  tenon  joint,  with  the 
exception  that  the  mortise  is  cut  entirely 
through  the  material  B  and  the  tenon  A  is 
allowed  to  extend  so  as  to  be  exposed  a 
short  distance  on  the  opposite  side.  This 
form  of  mortise  and  tenon  construction  is 
frequently  used  in  cabinet  work,  where  the 
Figure  52.  exposed  end  of  the  tenon  is  treated  in  a 

decorative  manner.  This  mortise  and  tenon  joint  is  a  little  more 
difficult  than  the  blind  mortise  and  tenon  because  the  joint  is  ex- 
posed on  the  opposite  side  and  the  mortise  must  fit  the  tenon  per- 
fectly in  order  to  show  good  workmanship.  This  joint  is  laid  out 
exactly  like  the  blind  mortise  and  tenon  except  that  the  mortise 
is  laid  out  on  both  sides  of  the  material  B.  In  cutting,  the  work 
is  done  from  both  sides  to  avoid  splintering  out  and  to  be  sure 
that  the  mortise  will  be  accurately  cut  and  that  the  tenon  will  fill 
it  properly.  The  tenon  must  also  be  formed  with  great  care  so 
as  to  make  sure  that  it  will  properly  fill  the  mortise. 


365 


THE  OPEN  MORTISE  AND  TENON  JOINT. 


Paragraph  68.  The  open  mortise  and 
tenon  joint  is  used  in  the  construction  of 
rectangular  frame  work  which  employs 
heavy  timbers.  This  joint,  however,  is  not 
in  very  common  use.  It  is  very  similar  to 
the  end  half-lap  joint,  but  is  a  little  more 
complicated. 

In  laying  out  the  open  mortise  and 
tenon  joint  the  tenon  piece  A  will  be  laid 
Figure  53.  out  an(j  cut  m  the  same  manner  as  in  cut- 

ting the  tenon  for  the  blind  mortise  and  tenon  joint.  The  mortise 
piece  B  is  laid  out  with  a  mortising  gauge  in  the  same  manner 
as  any  other  mortise  except  that,  since  it  is  at  the  end  of  the  ma- 
terial, instead  of  being  bored  and  chiseled  out  it  can  be  ripped 
down  with  the  rip  saw  and  cut  out  with  a  chisel. 

ROUND  TENON. 

Paragraph  69.  The  round  tenon  is 
used  in  joining  materials  where  there  is 
no  great  strain  sidewise.  It  is  rather 
easily  constructed,  but  is  not  so  substan- 
tial or  rigid  as  the  blind  mortise  and  tenon, 
and  for  that  reason  it  is  not  so  common. 
It  is  used  in  wheel  construction  where  the 
spoke  joins  the  felly.  It  is  frequently  used 
on  the  end  of  materials  where  the  principal 
Figure  54.  pressure  is  downward  with  but  little  strain 

sidewise.    For  instance,  in  the  legs  of  the  camp  stool. 

TO  LAY  OUT  THE  ROUND  TENON  CONSTRUCTION. 

Decide  the  length  the  tenon  is  to  be  and  square  a  line  entire- 
ly around  the  material  that  distance  from  the  end  (piece  A) .  De- 
termine the  diameter  of  the  round  tenon  and  set  the  mortising 
gauge  with  the  two  points  as  far  apart  as  the  desired  diameter. 
Set  the  gauge  with  the  head  at  the  proper  distance  from  the  first 
point  to  lay  out  the  tenon  in  the  center  of  the  material.  Carefully 
gauge  the  tenon  on  the  edge  of  the. material.  With  the  rip  saw 
saw  down  to  the  squared  line  in  the  same  manner  in  which  you 
would  saw  any  tenon.  With  the  two  points  exactly  the  same  dis- 
tance apart  set  the  head  of  the  marking  gauge  so  as  to  lay  out 


366 


the  tenon  the  proper  distance  from  the  working  edge  and  gauge 
the  width  of  the  tenon  on  each  side  of  the  tenon  already  sawed. 
Again  saw  down  to  the  shoulders.  This  will  form  a  square  tenon. 
Find  the  center  of  this  square  tenon  by  drawing  the  diagonals  on 
the  end.  Set  the  compasses  and  on  the  end  of  the  square  tenon 
lay  out  a  circle  the  size  of  the  desired  round  tenon.  With  a  pocket- 
knife  carefully  cut  away  the  corners  and  make  the  tenon  round 
to  the  size  indicated  on  the  end.  It  should  be  finished  with  a 
wood  file.  In  this  joint  the  mortise  is  to  be  merely  a  round  hole 
(piece  B).  It  is  bored  with  a  brace  and  bit  of  the  proper  size.  It 
might  be  well  to  bore  this  hole  before  the  tenon  is  completed  so  it 
can  be  tested  from  time  to  time  to  make  sure  that  it  is  made  the 
exact  size  to  fill  the  mortise  snugly.  This  joint  may  be  assembled 
with  glue  or  a  small  brad  may  be  driven  through  B  into  the  tenon, 
as  the  nature  of  the  work  may  indicate. 

KEYED  MORTISE  AND  TENON. 


Paragraph  70.  The  keyed  mortise 
and  tenon  joint  is  a  very  old  one.  It  was 
formerly  used  only  in  heavy  construction 
work  or  where  great  strength  was  re- 
quired. In  recent  years,  however,  it  has 
found  its  way  into  a  great  many  kinds  of 
cabinet  construction,  where  it  is  used  for 
its  artistic  effect  as  well  as  for  strength. 
There  is  no  joint  which  will  present  great- 
Figure  55.  er  strength  than  the  keyed  mortise  and 
tenon.  If  it  is  properly  proportioned  it  will  withstand  almost  any 
kind  of  strain  and  cannot  be  torn  apart  until  the  material  is  split 
and  almost  absolutely  destroyed.  In  the  keyed  mortise  (B)  and 
tenon  (A)  construction  the  laying  out  and  execution  are  very  simi- 
lar to  the  through  mortise  and  tenon,  except  that  the  tenon  is  cut 
very  much  longer  so  as  to  extend  a  sufficient  distance  to  have  a 
mortise  cut  in  it  and  allow  a  key  (C)  to  be  used. 

Lay  out  the  mortise  and  the  tenon  as  explained  in  Paragraph 
66.  Allow  the  tenon  to  extend  through  the  mortise  far  enough  to 
receive  the  mortise  for  the  key  and  still  leave  sufficient  wood  to 
give  the  necessary  strength.  In  designing  the  keyed  mortise  and 
tenon  joint  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  how  much 
strength  will  be  required.  In  cabinet  and  artistic  work  of  course 
strength  is  not  an  important  point.  Then  one  must  consider  the 
general  appearance  of  the  work.  It  is  quite  common  to  see  rather 


367 

heavy  keyed  tenons  on  a  piece  of  work  which  is  not  subjected  to  a 
great  strain,  but  because  of  the  massive  appearance  which  is  desired 
throughout  the  work  large  tenons  and  keys  are  used.  This  is  a 
matter  of  judgment  and  no  definite  rule  can  be  given.  Note:  In 
cutting  the  mortise  for  the  key  and  in  preparing  the  key,  be  sure 
that  the  key  tightens  in  such  a  way  as  to  hold  the  two  pieces  of 
material  closely  together.  The  key  must  not  tighten  laterally  or 
it  will  split  the  end  of  the  tenon.  It  is  well  for  the  key  to  fit  rather 
loosely  this  way,  but  to  bind  very  snugly  in  the  other  direction. 
The  size  and  shape  of  the  key  is  a  matter  of  taste.  The  key  is 
sometimes  cut  in  a  scrolled  or  artistic  form. 

LAPPED  DOVE-TAILED  JOINT. 


Paragraph  71.  The  lapped  dove-tail 
joint  is  simply  a  lapped  joint  in  which  the 
farther  end  of  the  tenon  is  wider  than  the 
portion  that  is  next  the  shoulder.  This 
makes  it  impossible  for  the  joint  to  pull 
apart  without  splitting  the  material.  The 
lapped  dove-tail  joint  is  not  very  common 
because  it  is  rather  difficult  to  construct 
and  presents  but  few  advantages,  which 
Figure  oc.  are  hardly  sufficient  to  justify  the  efforts 

required  in  making  it.  It  is  very  suitable  in  installing  mullions 
or  cross  ties  in  any  sort  of  large  frame  work.  The  dividing  strips 
in  large  window  screens  would  offer  an  opportunity  for  the  ap- 
plication of  this  joint. 

TO  LAY  OUT  THE  LAP  AND  DOVE-TAIL. 

The  angle  at  which  the  dove-tail  is  cut  is  not  material.  What- 
ever angle  is  decided  upon  should  be  set  on  the  T-bevel.  The  ma- 
terials should  be  planed  exactly  square.  On  piece  A  cut  the  lap 
joint  the  same  as  when  making  an  end  half -lap  (Paragraph  63). 
Then  with  the  T-bevel  lay  out  the  angle  of  the  dove-tail  on  the 
working  face.  With  the  back  saw,  saw  down  the  shoulder  and 
rip  down  the  lines  laid  out  with  the  T-bevel  just  as  you  would 
saw  out  a  tenon.  Lay  this  piece  of  material  across  the  piece  B  in 
the  desired  position.  With  the  sharp  point  of  a  knife  indicate  the 
width  for  the  gain.  With  the  T-bevel  lay  out  the  gain  on  the 
working  face.  (Sometimes  this  gain  is  laid  out  merely  by  mark- 
ing on  each  side  of  the  tenon.  It  is  more  desirable,  however,  to 


368 


lay  it  out  with  the  T-bevel  in  order  to  have  it  absolutely  accurate.) 
Square  these  lines  down  on  both  edges  of  material  B,  with  the 
marking  gauge  set  exactly  as  it  was  used  in  laying  out  the  tenon, 
gauge  the  depth  which  the  gain  is  to  be  cut.  Saw  down  to  the 
gauge  line,  then  with  a  sharp  chisel  pare  out  the  gain.  Assemble 
this  joint  with  glue,  brads,  nails  or  screws  as  the  nature  of  the 
work  may  indicate. 

DOWEL  JOINT. 


Paragraph  72.  In  making  up  wide 
boards,  such  as  table  tops,  drawing  boards, 
or  any  other  cabinet  construction  in  which 
it  is  impractical  to  use  one  wide  board, 
dowels  are  frequently  used.  The  purpose 
of  the  dowels  is  to  reinforce  the  glued 
joints.  Dowels  may  be  placed  in  the  joint 
at  any  distance  apart.  In  work  subject  to 
great  strain  the  dowels  are  frequently 
Figure  57.  placed  within  a  few  inches  of  each  other. 

In  other  work  they  are  placed  farther  apart.  This  must  always 
be  a  matter  of  judgment.  The  size  (diameter)  of  the  dowel  de- 
pends upon  the  thickness  of  the  board  to  be  joined.  In  %"  or  1" 
material,  14"  or  %"  dowels  are  commonly  used,  extending  li/2"  or 
2"  into  the  edge  of  each  board.  Dowels  are  usually  covered  with 
glue,  thus  when  the  edges  of  the  board  are  glued  together  a  very 
strong  joint  is  made. 

TO  LAY  OUT  AND  BORE  FOR  DOWELS. 

See  Chapter  II.,  Paragraphs  18  and  13.  Saw  short  pieces  of 
dowels  just  long  enough  to  fill  the  depth  of  the  holes  in  board  A 
and  extend  enough  to  fill  the  holes  in  board  B.  Put  some  glue  on 
the  dowels  and  drive  them  into  board  A.  Then  to  make  sure  that 
the  dowels  are  not  too  long,  measure  the  distance  they  extend  and 
measure  the  depth  of  the  holes  in  board  B.  Cover  the  dowels  with 
glue,  also  glue  the  edges  which  are  to  join.  Make  sure  that  the  face 
side  of  the  two  boards  are  turned  in  the  same  direction ;  dr;ve  the 
boards  together.  After  the  boards  are  driven  together  they 
should  be  clamped  very  tightly  with  a  steel  clamp.  If  you  have 
no  steel  clamp,  substitutes  may  be  made  by  nailing  some  blocks 
at  convenient  distances  apart  on  any  rough  piece  of  material  and 
tightening  with  wedges.  Dowel  joints  should  be  clamped  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours  to  give  the  glue  a  chance  to  harden. 


369 


TONGUE  AND  GROOVE  JOINT. 


Paragraph  73.  The  tongue  and 
groove  joint  is  very  commonly  used  in 
joining  the  edges  of  boards.  This  joint  is 
found  in  all  kinds  of  flooring  and  ceiling. 
It  is  also  used  somewhat  in  joining  boards 
in  cabinet  construction,  such  as  in  table 
tops,  counter  tops  and  in  other  places 
where  wide  boards  are  needed.  It  is  not 
common  to  prepare  a  tongue  and  groove 
joint  in  the  shop;  material  is  usually  pur- 
chased with  the  tongue  and  the  groove  already  made;  this  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  flooring  and  ceiling.  While  the  tongue  and 
groove  joint  is  not  commonly  made  by  hand,  yet  there  are  fre- 
quently occasions  where  it  is  necessary  to  do  a  little  of  this  kind 
of  work.  For  this  reason  the  shop  should  be  provided  with  a  set 
of  matching  planes  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the  tongue  and 
groove.  One  plane  is  so  constructed  as  to  cut  the  tongue  while 
the  other  is  formed  to  cut  the  groove  (these  planes  are  sometimes 
so  constructed  that  the  same  plane  does  the  work  of  both,  one 
side  being  used  for  the  tongue  and  the  opposite  side  for  the  groove 

TO  PREPARE  TONGUE  AND  GROOVE. 

First,  see  that  your  material  is  planed  perfectly  straight  and 
square  on  the  edges.  Then  place  the  material  in  the  vise  exactly 
as  though  you  were  going  to  plane  the  edge,  and  with  the  match- 
ing plane  (which  must  be  firmly  held  against  the  working  face) 
plane  a  groove  (B)  on  one  edge  of  each  piece  of  material.  Plane  a 
tongue  (A)  on  the  opposite  edge  of  each  piece.  This  joint  can  be 
assembled  with  glue  or  treated  as  the  nature  of  the  work  may  de- 

mand'  HALVED  SPLICE. 

Paragraph  74.  The  halved  splice  is 
used  for  the  purpose  of  splicing  materials 
in  length.  This  joint  is  very  similar  to  the 
half -lap  joint  except  that  the  material  con- 
tinues in  one  direction  rather  than  at  right 
angles.  In  preparing  this  joint  see  that 
the  material  is  planed  perfectly  square. 
Lay  out  the  half -lap  as  explained  in  Para- 
graph 63.  Assemble  with  glue  and  brads, 
or  nails  and  screws,  as  the  nature  of  the 
Figure  59.  work  may  demand. 


370 


SIMPLE  HALF-PITCH  CUT. 

Paragraph  75.  In  house  or  roof  con- 
struction the  cutting  of  rafters  is  a  very 
essential  matter.  In  simple  roof  work  this 
is  not  difficult.  Most  roofs  follow  the  regu- 
lar standards  of  pitch,  the  most  common 
being  half,  third  and  quarter-pitch.  By 
the  pitch  of  the  roof  is  meant  the  relation 
of  the  elevation  of  the  roof  to  the  width  of 
the  building.  A  half -pitch  roof  is  one  in 
Figure  GO.  which  the  elevation  of  the  rafters  is  one- 

half  the  width  of  the  building.  To  illustrate:  if  a  building  is  12 
ft.  wide  the  elevation  of  the  rafters  would  be  one-half  of  12,  which 
is  6  ft.  To  lay  out  the  half -pitch  cut  a  steel  square  should  be 
used,  as  explained  in  Chapter  2,  Paragraph  24.  In  cutting  the 
brace  for  a  door  or  any  other  purpose  the  half -pitch  cut  would  be 
laid  out  in  exactly  the  same  way. 

THIRD-PITCH  CUT. 

Paragraph  76.  A  third-pitch  roof  is 
one  in  which  the  elevation  of  the  rafters 
is  one-third  the  width  of  the  building.  To 
illustrate:  if  a  building  is  18  ft.  wide  a 
third-pitch  roof  would  be  one  in  which  the 
elevation  to  the  point  of  the  rafters  would 
be  one-third  of  18  ft.,  which  is  6  ft.  To 
make  this  cut  a  steel  square  should  be 
used,  as  indicated  in  Chapter  2,  Paragraph 

OK 

Figure  61. 

QUARTER-PITCH  CUT. 

Paragraph  77.  A  quarter-pitch  roof 
is  one  in  which  the  elevation  of  the  rafters 
is  one-fourth  the  width  of  the  building. 
To  illustrate:  if  the  width  of  the  building 
is  24  ft.,  the  elevation  of  a  quarter-pitch 
roof  will  be  one-fourth  of  24,  which  is  6 
ft.  This  cut  for  a  rafter  would  be  laid  out 
as  indicated  in  Chapter  2,  Paragraph  26. 

Of  course  in  roof  construction  there 
Figure  62.  are  a  great  many  other   rafter   problems 

which  arise,  such  as  the  cutting  of  valley,  hip  and  jack  rafters. 
As  this  information  belongs  purely  to  the  carpenter's  trade,  it 


371 

is  not  worth  while  taking  it  up  here.  The  matter  of  getting  the 
length  of  rafters  is  a  simple  problem  which  can  be  easily  figured 
out  in  the  arithmetic  class  by  figuring  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right 
triangle,  in  which  the  elevation  is  the  altitude  and  one-half  the 
width  of  the  building  is  the  base.  Of  course  the  carpenter  has 
rules  by  which  he  is  able  to  get  the  length  of  a  rafter  by  the  use 
of  the  steel  square. 


372 


CHAPTER  VI 
TOOLS  AND  TOOL  SHARPENING       ; 

SAWS. 

Paragraph  78.  There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  saws,  each 
of  which  is  constructed  for  some  sort  of  special  work.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  you  should  learn  all  about  the  different  kinds  of 
saws ;  however,  there  are  a  few  points  regarding  the  more  common 
ones  with  which  you  should  become  familiar. 

The  ordinary  hand  saws,  or  panel  saws,  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  are  in  most  common  use,  and  for  that  reason  you  will  need 
to  know  about  them.  Hand  saws  are  divided  into  two  general 
classes,  those  that  cut  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  called  rip  saws, 
and  those  that  cut  across  the  grain,  known  as  cross-cutting  saws. 
The  principal  distinguishing  feature  between  the  two  classes  of 
saws  is  the  shape  of  the  teeth,  each  having  the  teeth  so  shaped 
and  filed  as  to  perform  its  particular  work  most  satisfactorily. 

A  mistake  frequently  made  by  beginners  is  that  of  attempt- 
ing to  use  a  rip  saw  for  cross  cutting  purposes.  On  account  of 
the  shape  of  its  teeth  and  the  angle  at  which  they  are  filed,  a  rip 
saw  will  not  do  satisfactory  work  in  cutting  across  the  grain  of 
wood.  You  will  understand  this  better  after  studying  the  illustra- 
tion and  the  discussion  which  follows,  and  also  making  some  prac- 
tical experiments  in  the  shop. 

The  cross-cutting  saw  is  sometimes  taken  for  ripping  pur- 
poses. This  is  not  such  a  bad  mistake,  for  a  cross-cutting  saw  will 
do  fairly  good  work  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  although  it  will 
not  cut  so  rapidly  as  the  rip  saw.  In  ripping  material  which  is 
very  knotty  or  cross  grained  a  cross-cutting  saw  will  often  give 
very  excellent  results.  On  account  of  its  being  so  necessary  for 
you  to  select  a  saw  which  is  fitted  for  the  particular  work  which 
you  expect  to  do,  you  must  be  able  to  distinguish  between  the 
cross-cutting  and  rip  saws. 

RIP  SAWS. 

Paragraph  79.  The  following  illustration  (Figure  63)  shows 
the  appearance  of  the  teeth  of  a  rip  saw.  The  size  of  the  teeth 
is  somewhat  exaggerated  so  you  may  be  able  to  recognize  the 


373 


essential  features.  At  first  glance  you  possibly  would  not  distin- 
guish the  difference  between  the  shape  of  these  teeth  and  the 
teeth  of  a  cross-cutting  saw ;  therefore  you  must  examine  the  illus- 
tration carefully,  studying  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  from  all 
the  different  views  which  are  given. 


RIPSAW 


HEEL 


POINT 


SIDE  VIEW  OF  TEETH 


EttDVIEW 


EDGE  VIEW 


Figure  63. 

In  order  that  saws  may  run  easily,  and  cut  a  wide  enough 
groove,  or  kerf,  as  it  is  called,  to  allow  the  blade  to  run  freely,  the 
edge  of  the  blade  which  has  the  teeth  is  usually  a  little  thicker 
than  the  back  edge  of  the  blade.  The  teeth  also  are  given  "set"; 
that  is,  half  the  teeth  (alternating)  are  turned  slightly  toward  one 
cdde  while  the  remaining  half  are  turned  toward  the  other  side. 
This  plan  of  setting  the  teeth  has  the  effect  of  enabling  the  saw  to 
cut  a  kerf  sufficiently  wide  for  the  blade  to  run  through  smoothly. 

Rip  saw  teeth  are  not  given  much  set.  However,  they  should 
have  a  little  set,  as  shown  in  the  end  view  of  Figure  63.  By  exam- 
ining a  rip  saw  in  the  shop,  noticing  the  set,  the  shape  of  the  teeth, 
and  experimenting  with  it,  you  will  see  clearly  why  it  should 
always  be  used  only  for  ripping  purposes. 

CROSS-CUTTING  SAWS. 

Paragraph  80.  The  teeth  of  cross-cutting  saws,  instead  of 
being  filed  square  across  like  rip  saw  teeth,  are  filed  at  an  angle, 
so  that  the  cutting  edge  of  each  tooth  approaches  the  wood  very 


374 

much  in  the  manner  of  a  keen  knife  blade.  This  is  the  feature 
which  makes  it  possible  for  a  cross-cutting  saw  to  sever  the  fibers 
of  wood  and  make  a  smooth  cut  across  the  grain.  Figure  64  shows 
you  the  shape  of  the  teeth  of  a  cross-cutting  saw. 


CROSS  CUTTING  SAW 


HEEL 


POIHT 


EDGE  VIEW 


Figure  64. 

You  will  observe  that  the  front,  or  cutting  edge,  of  each  tooth 
leans  slightly  backward  toward  the  heel  of  the  saw.  The  side  view 
shows  that  the  teeth  are  beveled.  This  is  done  by  filing  them  half 
from  one  side  and  the  other  half  from  the  opposite  side.  The  teeth 
are  also  given  more  set  than  was  found  in  the  rip  saw.  This  may 
be  seen  from  the  edge  and  end  view.  A  careful  study  of  the  char- 
acteristic features  of  cross-cutting  saws,  together  with  a  little 
thoughtful  experimenting  in  the  shop,  will  enable  you  to  under- 
stand these  points  fully. 

SAW  FILING. 

Paragraph  81.  Saw  filing  is  a  very  technical  piece  of  work. 
It  should  not  be  attempted  without  considerable  study;  it  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  elementary  students  should  file  their  own  saws 
in  the  shop.  This  work  should  be  done  by  the  teacher  or  an  expert 
saw  filer.  An  inexperienced  student  is  likely  to  damage  a  saw 
almost  beyond  repair  in  his  early  attempts  at  filing.  NOTE :  If  it 


375 

is  thought  advisable  to  attempt  sawfiling  in  ths  school  there  should 
be  a  saw  or  two  put  aside  for  this  purpose  and  used  for  practice 
work.  No  student  should  be  permitted  to  attempt  the  work  on 
any  of  the  regular  shop  saws  until  he  has  acquired  sufficient  skill 
to  be  able  to  do  it  without  danger  of  damage  to  the  saw.  It  is  not 
the  purpose  of  this  discussion  to  give  detailed  illustrations  and  in- 
structions on  the  technical  subject  of  saw  dressing.  A  careful 
study  of  some  of  the  references  given  in  this  text  will  offer  valu- 
able assistance  along  that  line. 

CARE  OF  SAWS. 

Paragraph  82.  All  saws  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  free 
from  glue,  rust  or  anything  else  which  would  give  the  sides  of  the 
saw  a  rough  surface.  Saws  should  be  wiped  frequently  with  an 
oiled  rag  (do  not  use  linseed  oil) .  If  any  spots  of  rust  appear  they 
should  be  rubbed  off  with  powdered  emery,  pumice  stone,  or  with 
a  piece  of  well-worn  sandpaper  and  a  little  oil.  Care  should  be  ex- 
ercised never  to  allow  the  teeth  of  a  saw  to  strike  against  any 
kind  of  metal,  such  as  the  vise  jaw,  a  nail  or  a  screw.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  saw  a  board  which  is  covered  with  dirt,  cement,  or 
any  other  substance  which  is  likely  to  dull  the  saw,  the  board 
should  be  carefully  cleaned  along  the  line  where  the  saw  cut  is  to 
be  made  before  the  work  is  attempted.  It  is  very  much  easier  and 
cheaper  to  keep  shop  saws  sharp  and  in  good  order  by  proper  care 
than  to  have  them  re-sharpened. 

PLANES. 

Paragraph  83.  A  plane  is  one  of  the  most  important  tools 
which  you  must  learn  to  handle.  There  are  a  great  many  differ- 
ent kinds  and  sizes  of  planes  designed  for  different  sorts  of  special 
work.  In  their  principal  features  they  are  very  similar.  They  all 
consist  of  some  sort  of  sharp  cutting  blade  firmly  fastened  in  a 
suitable  stock  provided  with  a  convenient  handle.  The  planes  in 
most  common  use,  and  no  doubt  the  ones  which  you  will  find  in 
your  shop,  are  the  block  plane,  smoothing  plane  and  jack  plane. 
In  carpenter  work  and  in  cabinet-making  there  is  frequently  a 
need  for  a  very  long  plane,  known  as  a  jointer.  The  only  advan- 
tage which  such  a  plane  has  over  your  bench  plane,  or  jack  plane, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  in  length.  The  extra  long  stock  of  the 
jointer  makes  it  especially  suitable  for  planing  straight  edges  on 
long  strips  for  the  edges  of  boards,  which  are  to  be  dowled,  or  for 
fitting  long  doors  which  must  be  planed  perfectly  straight. 


376 

THE  JACK  PLANE. 

Paragraph  84.  The  old-fashioned  jack  plane,  which  was  for- 
merly used  for  all  sorts  of  general  purpose  work,  has  almost  en- 
tirely gone  out  of  use.  The  jack  plane  was  constructed  with  a 
large  open  throat,  the  blade  was  ground  somewhat  rounding  so  it 
could  be  set  to  take  a  very  thick  shaving  without  causing  the 
corners  of  the  blade  to  tear  the  wood.  This  plane  was  used  to 
dress  weather  boarding,  flooring  and  all  sorts  of  heavy  work,  in 
the  early  days  when  all  planing  was  done  by  hand.  Now,  this  sort 
of  planing  is  done  by  electric  or  steam  power,  so  the  old-fashioned 
jack  plane  has  practically  gone  out-  of  use.  The  word,  however,  is 
still  used  frequently  in  referring  to  the  ordinary  general  purpose 
bench  plane.  This  is  the  plane  with  which  you  will  do  a  large  por- 
tion of  your  work.  An  illustration  and  explanation  will  be  given 
in  this  discussion. 

THE  SMOOTHING  PLANE. 

Paragraph  85.  The  smoothing  plane  is  shorter  than  the  jack 
plane,  but  is  otherwise  very  similar  in  construction.  It  is  used  on 
small  work  and  to  plane  broad  surfaces.  The  fact  that  it  has  a 
short  stock  makes  it  possible  for  it  to  follow  the  indentations  on  a 
surface  and  thus  smooth  it  perfectly. 

BLOCK  PLANE. 

Paragraph  86.  The  block  plane  is  very  much  smaller  than 
the  smoothing  plane.  Besides  its  size,  it  has  certain  other  fea- 
tures which  distinguish  it  from  other  planes  and  adapt  it  to  the 
particular  class  of  work  which  it  is  intended  to  do.  Block  planes 
are  usually  made  almost  entirely  of  iron.  The  particularly  char- 
acteristic feature  is  the  method  of  putting  in  the  blade.  A  block 
plane  blade  has  its  bevel  on  the  top  side  and  the  blade  is  not  pro- 
vided with  a  break  bit.  The  purpose  of  this  plane  is  to  smooth  the 
end  of  a  board.  You  can  readily  see  that  since  its  purpose  is  to 
cut  across  the  grain,  it  would  not  require  a  bit  for  the  purpose  of 
breaking  the  shavings. 

PARTS  OF  THE  PLANE. 

Paragraph  87.  The  following  illustration  shows  a  modern 
iron  plane,  which  is  typical  of  the  present-day  method  of  plane  con- 
struction. This  is  a  No.  5  bench  plane,  which  you  have  just  learned 
is  frequently  called  a  j«ack  plane.  In  size  and  general  construction 
it  is  adapted  to  almost  any  kind  of  general  purpose  work  for  which 


377 


you  will  require  a  plane  in  the  shop.  It  is  long  enough  to  render 
good  service  as  a  jointer  and  for  the  class  of  smoothing  work  which 
you  will  need  to  do  it  will  be  very  convenient. 

While  this  style  of  plane  has  a  great  many  different  parts, 
there  are  really  only  a  few  with  which  you  need  to  concern  your- 
self. Such  parts  as  the  handle,  the  knob  and  the  bottom  or  sole, 
are  so  evident  that  they  are  not  pointed  out  to  you  in  the  illustra- 
tion. You  should  study  Figure  65  with  your  bench  plane  before 
you  and  thus  thoroughly  familiarize  yourself  with  the  nature  and 
function  of  each  of  the  parts  which  are  pointed  out  in  this  illus- 
tration. 


Figure  65. 

Arrow  No.  1  points  out  the  clamp  iron,  the  purpose  of  which 
is  to  hold  the  blade,  or  bit,  firmly  in  position.  Notice  that  this 
clamp  is  fastened  by  a  little  lever  at  the  top.  To  loosen  the  clamp 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  bit  the  little  lever  should  be 
raised.  This  portion  of  the  plane  is  frequently  broken  by  begin- 
ning students  because  they  attempt  to  force  down  the  lever  when 
the  blade  is  not  in  its  proper  position.  It  should  not  require  much 
force  to  push  down  the  lever ;  if  you  are  having  such  difficulty  with 
your  plane  make  sure  that  the  plane  blade  is  resting  properly  in 
its  position  and  that  there  are  no  chips  under  it.  If  the  lever  still 
refuses  to  operate  properly,  the  little  screw  which  holds  the  clamp 
in  position  may  be  slightly  loosened.  However,  this  screw  should 
not  often  require  adjusting. 

Arrow  No.  2  points  out  the  plane  blade,  or  plane  iron,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called.  This  plane  iron  is  composed  of  two  parts,  firmly 
clamped  together  by  a  set  screw.  If  you  remove  the  clamp  and 


378 

take  out  the  plane  iron  you  will  find  that  the  cutting  blade  is 
clamped  in  the  stock,  with  the  bevel  on  the  bottom  side  of  the 
blade;  the  cap  iron,  or  break  bit,  as  it  is  more  properly  called,  is 
fastened  to  the  blade  on  the  top  side.  Before  separating  the  break 
bit  from  the  cutting  blade,  you  should  notice  the  manner  in  which  the 
two  blades  are  adjusted.  If  the  plane  is  set  for  fine  finishing  work 
the  edge  of  the  break  bit  will  come  very  close  to  the  edge  of  the 
cutting  blade  (perhaps  within  1/64  of  an  inch) .  If  the  plane  is  set 
for  rougher  work,  where  it  will  be  required  to  take  a  thick  shaving 
in  planing  away  stock,  then  the  break  bit  will  be  considerably  far- 
ther from  the  cutting  edge,  perhaps  as  much  as  1/16  of  an  inch,  or 
even  more.  A  little  experimenting  will  enable  you  to  adjust  the 
break  blade  properly  for  any  kind  of  work  which  you  may  care  to 
do.  You  should  be  very  careful  when  putting  the  break  blade  in 
position  to  avoid  striking  it  against  the  cutting  edge  of  the  blade. 

Arrow  No.  3  points  out  the  adjusting  lever.  The  purpose  of 
this  lever  is  to  adjust  the  plane  blade  so  that  it  will  extend  through 
the  throat  of  the  plane  evenly  at  each  side.  If  one  corner  of  the 
bit  extends  too  far  through,  push  the  lever  the  proper  direction  to 
adjust  it.  By  examining  the  sole  of  the  plane  and  watching  the 
movement  of  the  blade  as  you  move  the  adjusting  lever  you  will 
learn  just  how  to  control  it. 

Arrow  No.  4  points  out  the  adjusting  nut  which  regulates  the 
depth  of  the  plane  blade  and  thus  controls  the  thickness  of  the 
shaving  to  be  cut.  By  turning  this  bronze  nut  either  to  the  right 
or  to  the  left,  the  blade  will  be  raised  or  lowered.  You  will  have  to 
experiment  with  your  own  plane  in  order  that  you  may  know  just 
how  to  adjust  the  blade  with  this  nut. 

A  mistake  frequently  made  by  beginners  is  in  attempting  to 
cut  too  thick  a  shaving;  where  a  thick  shaving  is  removed  the 
wood  is  not  left  perfectly  smooth.  You  should  adopt  the  rule  of 
keeping  your  plane  blades  very  sharp  and  set  to  take  only  a  very 
thin  shaving.  This  will  insure  good  work  and  the  proper  use  of 
the  tool. 

In  laying  down  a  plane  it  should  be  laid  on  its  side  rather  than 
on  its  sole.  In  laying  it  on  the  sole  there  is  danger  of  nicking  the 
extreme  cutting  edge  of  the  bit  which  is  extending  through  the 
throat.  If,  after  thoroughly  studying  these  points  regarding  your 
plane,  you  are,  for  any  reason,  unable  to  get  satisfactory  results, 
you  should  consult  someone  who  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  plane 
construction.  It  is  not  well  for  you  to  attempt  the  adjustment  of 
any  of  the  parts  other  than  those  already  explained. 


379 

PLANE  SHARPENING. 

Paragraph  88.  As  it  is  impossible  to  do  satisfactory  work 
with  a  dull  plane,  you  must  learn  to  sharpen  your  plane  blades. 
This  is  not  a  difficult  task,  and  if  thoughtfully  approached  will  give 
you  no  trouble.  It  should  be  a  source  of  great  satisfaction  for  you 
to  be  able  to  keep  your  tools  in  excellent  shape.  In  plane  sharp- 
ening there  are  just  a  few  points  which  you  should  bear  in  mind — 
first,  a  plane  blade  should  be  perfectly  square  on  its  cutting  edge. 
Test  with  the  try-square  to  make  sure  this  is  true.  The  extreme 
corners  should  be  rounded  very  slightly  to  prevent  them  from 
scratching  the  wood  unduly  when  the  plane  is  used.  This  matter 
of  rounding  the  blade  is  such  a  small  point  that  you  need  give  it 
but  little  attention.  You  should  rather  take  precaution  not  to 
round  the  blade  too  much.  Adopt  the  rule  of  testing  the  blade 
with  a  try-square  and  making  it  straight  while  whetting. 

The  plane  blade  should  be  sharpened  at  a  continuous  bevel, 
that  is,  the  angle  of  sharpening  should  not  vary  and  should  not  be 
rounded  in  the  least.  It  will  require  some  practice  to  be  able  to 
bevel  a  plane  blade  in  this  manner. 

GRINDING. 

Paragraph  89.  For  a  great  many  years  grinding  on  a  grind- 
stone has  been  the  standard  method  of  sharpening  chisel  and  plane 
blades.  If  your  shop  is  equipped  with  a  grindstone  you  will  find 
it  convenient  for  this  purpose.  Be  sure  to  use  water  on  the  stone 
while  grinding.  The  purpose  of  the  water  is  to  wash  away  the 
little  particles  of  steel  as  they  are  ground  from  the  edge  of  the  tool. 
If  water  is  not  used  this  steel  will  imbed  itself  in  the  face  of  the 
stone  and  will  thus  hinder  the  grinding  process.  The  water  also 
serves  another  very  important  purpose.  It  prevents  friction,  and 
thus  avoids  heating  the  plane  blade.  Never  grind  an  edged  tool 
on  a  dry  grindstone.  The  surface  of  the  grindstone  must  be  kept 
smooth  and  straight,  in  order  that  plane  blades  and  wide  chisels 
may  be  squarely  ground.  If  it  is  necessary  to  grind  a  cold  chisel, 
screw  driver,  punch,  or  any  irregular  shaped  tool,  it  should  be  done 
on  the  side  of  the  grindstone  to  avoid  abusing  the  face.  In  grind- 
ing a  blade,  hold  it  at  a  constant  angle  in  order  to  give  it  a  true 
bevel,  as  has  been  explained.  This  angle  will  vary,  depending  upon 
the  kind  of  work  for  which  the  blade  is  being  sharpened.  If  you 
expect  to  do  considerable  rough  work  on  hard  and  knotty  material, 
the  plane  blade  should  not  be  ground  too  thin ;  that  is,  there  should 
be  a  thicker  bevel  than  if  you  were  preparing  it  for  soft  wood  or 


380 


fine  finishing  purposes.  A  very  satisfactory  angle  for  a  general 
purpose  plane  is  about  27  or  30  degrees.  When  you  remove  the 
blade  from  the  -stone  to  examine  it,  be  sure  to  put  it  back  in  posi- 
tion at  exactly  the  same  angle. 

You  cannot  completely  sharpen  a  blade  on  a  grindstone.  When 
the  bevel  has  been  completed  and  all  of  the  nicks  have  been  ground 
out,  you  will  find  the  cutting  edge  is  very  rough  and  will  possibly 
be  turned  up  slightly  in  the  form  of  a  wire  edge.  This  indicates 
that  the  grinding  is  done  and  that  you  should  finish  sharpening  the 
plane  blade  on  a  whetstone. 

WHETTING. 

Paragraph  90.  The  final  sharpening  of  the  blade  must  be 
done  on  a  fine  whetstone  of  some  sort.  This  may  be  a  natural 
stone  or  an  artificial  stone  made  of  carborundum.  For  the  finishing 
work  use  a  stone  of  fine  grit.  See  that  the  face  of  the  stone  is  per- 
fectly clean  and  use  plenty  of  oil  during  the  whetting  process.  Do 
not  use  linseed  oil  on  any  kind  of  whetstone.  It  will  not  only  fail  to 
give  satisfactory  results,  but  will  render  the  stone  unfit  for  use.  Use 
machine  oil,  which  may  be  thinned  with  kerosene.  The  oil  on  the 
whetstone  is  to  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  water  on  the  grind- 
stone. 

Grasp  the  plane  blade 
firmly  with  the  right  hand ; 
let  the  fingers  of  the  left 
hand  rest  on  top  of  the 
blade,  as  shown  in  Figure 
66.  Whet  with  a  backward 
and  forward  motion  cover- 
ing the  entire  length  of  the 
stone.  Be  sure  to  keep  the 
angle  constant.  In  order  to 
do  this  you  must  not  use  a 
rocking  motion.  Some  me- 
chanics whet  a  blade  with 
a  rotary,  or  circular  motion, 
but  this  plan  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  for  it  is  less  likely  to  produce  a  true  angle  and  a 
perfectly  square  cutting  edge.  Examine  frequently  to  see  that  the 
whetting  is  being  done  on  the  extreme  point,  or  cutting  edge  of 
the  bevel ;  that  is,  the  whetting  will  be  done  at  a  little  greater  angle 
than  the  grinding  is  done.  When  a  very  fine  wire  edge  appears, 


Figure  GG. 


381 


lay  the  blade  flat  on  its  straight  side  and  draw  it  across  the  stone, 
using  great  precaution  not  to  raise  the  opposite  end  of  the  blade, 
but  to  keep  it  perfectly  flat.  (See  Figure  67).  After  the  edge 

__     has  been  made  as  keen  as 

possible  on  the  oil  stone 
give  it  a  few  strokes,  strop- 
ping fashion,  on  a  piece  of 
leather,  which  should  be 
kept  in  the  shop  for  that 
purpose.  If  this  has  been 
properly  done,  the  plane 
blade  should  be  keen 
enough  to  shave.  If  you 
have  not  secured  such  re- 
sults it  will  be  well  to  find 
the  difficulty  and  try  it 
Figure  67.  again. 

BEVELING  ON  A  CARBORUNDUM  STONE. 

Paragraph  91.  If  your  shop  is  not  equipped  with  a  grind- 
stone, you  will  be  able  to  get  very  satisfactory  results  by  the  use 
of  a  rather  coarse  carborundum  stone.  This  is  merely  a  whetstone 
with  coarse  grit  which  enables  it  to  cut  very  rapidly.  It  should  be 
used  in  the  exact  manner  of  the  whetstone  just  explained.  In  pur- 
chasing a  carborundum  stone  for  the  shop  it  is  best  to  provide  a 
stone  which  has  coarse  grit  on  one  side  and  fine  on  the  other.  This 
makes  it  convenient  to  use  the  coarse  side  of  the  stone  in  cutting 
down  and  forming  the  desired  bevel  on  a  chisel  or  plane  blade.  The 
stone  may  then  be  turned  over  and  the  final  whetting  completed, 
as  already  explained. 

SHARPENING  CHISELS. 

Paragraph  92.  Chisels  are  sharpened  in  almost  exactly  the 
same  way  as  plane  blades.  The  length  of  the  bevel  of  the  chisel 
will  depend  on  the  kind  of  work  which  it  is  to  do.  For  heavy  mor- 
tising or  work  in  hard  wood,  a  chisel  should  not  be  ground  too  thin, 
or  it  will  not  stand  the  strain.  For  working  soft  wood  it  is  very 
desirable  that  chisels  be  ground  to  a  long,  thin  bevel.  This  makes 
it  possible  for  them  to  cut  very  smoothly.  The  bevel  should  be 
formed  on  the  grindstone  or  carborundum  stone  at  a  constant 
angle,  as  already  explained.  The  wire  edge  should  be  removed  and 


382 

the  final  cutting  edge  produced  on  a  fine  whetstone,  after  which 
the  chisel  should  be  stropped  on  leather  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
plane  blade. 

SHARPENING  KNIVES. 

Paragraph  93.  Sloyd  knives,  pocket  knives,  butcher  knives, 
and  in  fact  almost  all  tools  which  belong  to  the  general  type  of 
knives,  may  be  sharpened  in  the  manner  already  explained.  These 
tools  are,  however,  beveled  on  both  sides;  the  shape  and  length  of 
the  bevel  is  determined  in  each  case  by  the  kind  of  work  which  is  to 
be  done  with  the  tool. 

CARE  OF  SHARPENING  EQUIPMENT. 

Paragraph  94.  Somewhere  in  the  shop  there  should  be  a  defi- 
nite place  to  keep  the  sharpening  stone.  A  small  table,  or  shelf 
on  the  wall,  is  very  satisfactory  for  this  purpose.  The  shelf  or 
table  should  be  at  a  convenient  height  and  the  stone  should  be 
either  imbedded  in  the  shelf  top,  or  there  should  be  small  cleats 
so  nailed  as  to  form  a  receptacle  for  the  stone  to  hold  it  reason- 
ably solid  when  in  use.  The  stone  should  not  be  carried  about 
from  bench  to  bench  or  place  to  place  in  the  shop.  The  sharpen- 
ing should  all  be  done  at  the  bench  or  table  provided  for  that  pur- 
pose. A  can  of  suitable  oil  should  be  kept  near  the  stone.  A  small 
try-square  should  hang  at  a  convenient  place  so  it  can  be  readily 
used  to  test  the  blades  which  are  being  sharpened.  A  piece  of 
leather  to  serve  as  a,  strop  should  be  securely  glued  to  a  strip  of 
wood  and  should  form  a  part  of  the  sharpening  table  equipment. 
The  importance  of  tool  sharpening  makes  it  necessary  that  pro- 
visions be  made  to  encourage  students  in  undertaking  the  work. 
They  will  not  be  enthusiastic  about  sharpening  their  tools,  unless 
suitable  sharpening  equipment  is  provided,  and  kept  in  good  con- 
dition. 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

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